[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":4801},["ShallowReactive",2],{"page-\u002Fcpp\u002Fopengel\u002F坐标和变换":3},{"id":4,"title":5,"body":6,"description":12,"extension":4795,"meta":4796,"navigation":238,"path":4797,"seo":4798,"stem":4799,"__hash__":4800},"content\u002Fcpp\u002Fopengel\u002F坐标和变换.md","坐标和变换",{"type":7,"value":8,"toc":4773},"minimark",[9,13,16,19,23,26,29,35,38,44,60,63,67,78,84,87,107,110,113,117,123,152,163,192,199,213,292,309,320,335,358,361,366,369,1637,1640,1647,1653,1689,1692,1695,1698,1709,1712,1715,1725,1732,1735,1746,1749,1752,1755,1758,1767,1778,1785,1788,1791,1795,1798,1819,1826,1832,1838,1845,1854,1869,1876,1879,1886,1892,1899,1905,1924,1927,1936,1963,1969,1986,2000,2019,2025,2035,2038,2041,2047,2050,2089,2092,2096,2102,2109,2124,2134,2140,2240,2247,2262,2268,2332,2343,2363,2366,2377,2380,2386,2389,3252,3261,3264,3268,3275,3278,3282,3288,3374,3377,3383,3417,3420,3426,3453,3457,3463,3467,3498,3504,3508,3526,3530,3543,3546,3555,3558,3567,3569,4614,4627,4631,4634,4645,4709,4712,4769],[10,11,12],"p",{},"​\t尽管我们现在已经知道了如何创建一个物体、着色、加入纹理，给它们一些细节的表现，但因为它们都还是静态的物体，仍是不够有趣。我们可以尝试着在每一帧改变物体的顶点并且重配置缓冲区从而使它们移动，但这太繁琐了，而且会消耗很多的处理时间。我们现在有一个更好的解决方案，使用（多个）矩阵(Matrix)对象可以更好的变换(Transform)一个物体。当然，这并不是说我们会去讨论武术和数字虚拟世界（译注：Matrix同样也是电影「黑客帝国」的英文名，电影中人类生活在数字虚拟世界，主角会武术）。",[10,14,15],{},"​\t矩阵是一种非常有用的数学工具，尽管听起来可能有些吓人，不过一旦你理解了它们后，它们会变得非常有用。在讨论矩阵的过程中，我们需要使用到一些数学知识。对于一些愿意多了解这些知识的读者，我会附加一些资源给你们阅读。",[10,17,18],{},"​\t为了深入了解变换，我们首先要在讨论矩阵之前进一步了解一下向量。这一节的目标是让你拥有将来需要的最基础的数学背景知识。如果你发现这节十分困难，尽量尝试去理解它们，当你以后需要它们的时候回过头来复习这些概念。",[20,21,22],"h1",{"id":22},"向量",[10,24,25],{},"​\t向量最基本的定义就是一个方向。或者更正式的说，向量有一个方向(Direction)和大小(Magnitude，也叫做强度或长度)。你可以把向量想像成一个藏宝图上的指示：“向左走10步，向北走3步，然后向右走5步”；“左”就是方向，“10步”就是向量的长度。那么这个藏宝图的指示一共有3个向量。向量可以在任意维度(Dimension)上，但是我们通常只使用2至4维。如果一个向量有2个维度，它表示一个平面的方向(想象一下2D的图像)，当它有3个维度的时候它可以表达一个3D世界的方向。",[10,27,28],{},"​\t下面你会看到3个向量，每个向量在2D图像中都用一个箭头(x, y)表示。我们在2D图片中展示这些向量，因为这样子会更直观一点。你可以把这些2D向量当做z坐标为0的3D向量。由于向量表示的是方向，起始于何处并不会改变它的值。下图我们可以看到向量v¯和w¯是相等的，尽管他们的起始点不同：",[10,30,31],{},[32,33],"img",{"alt":32,"src":34},".\u002Fassets\u002Fvectors.png",[10,36,37],{},"数学家喜欢在字母上面加一横表示向量，比如说v¯。当用在公式中时它们通常是这样的：",[10,39,40],{},[32,41],{"alt":42,"src":43},"image-20251010024659401",".\u002Fassets\u002Fimage-20251010024659401.png",[10,45,46,47,51,52,55,56,59],{},"​\t由于向量是一个方向，",[48,49,50],"strong",{},"所以有些时候会很难形象地将它们用位置(Position)表示出来","。为了让其更为直观，我们通常设定这个方向的原点为(0, 0, 0)，然后指向一个方向，对应一个点，使其变为位置向量(Position Vector)（你也可以把起点设置为其他的点，然后说：这个向量从这个点起始指向另一个点）。",[48,53,54],{},"比如说位置向量(3, 5)在图像中的起点会是(0, 0)，并会指向(3, 5)","。我们可以使用向量在2D或3D空间中表示方向",[48,57,58],{},"与","位置.",[10,61,62],{},"​\t和普通数字一样，我们也可以用向量进行多种运算（其中一些你可能已经看到过了）。",[64,65,66],"h2",{"id":66},"向量与标量运算",[10,68,69,70,73,74,77],{},"​\t",[48,71,72],{},"标量(Scalar)只是一个数字（或者说是仅有一个分量的向量）","。当把一个向量加\u002F减\u002F乘\u002F除一个标量，我们可以",[48,75,76],{},"简单的把向量的每个分量分别进行该运算","。对于加法来说会像这样:",[10,79,80],{},[32,81],{"alt":82,"src":83},"image-20251010024733666",".\u002Fassets\u002Fimage-20251010024733666.png",[10,85,86],{},"​\t其中的+可以是+，-，·或÷，其中·是乘号。注意－和÷运算时不能颠倒（标量-\u002F÷向量），因为颠倒的运算是没有定义的。",[88,89,90,96],"blockquote",{},[10,91,92],{},[93,94,95],"span",{},"!NOTE",[10,97,98,99,106],{},"注意，数学上是没有向量与标量相加这个运算的，但是很多线性代数的库都对它有支持（比如说我们用的GLM）。如果你使用过numpy的话，可以把它理解为",[100,101,105],"a",{"href":102,"rel":103},"https:\u002F\u002Fnumpy.org\u002Fdoc\u002F1.18\u002Fuser\u002Fbasics.broadcasting.html",[104],"nofollow","Broadcasting","。",[10,108,109],{},"​\t数学工具就不用提了，详细看线性代数及其应用",[20,111,112],{"id":112},"实践",[64,114,116],{"id":115},"glm","GLM",[10,118,119],{},[32,120],{"alt":121,"src":122},"GLM Logo",".\u002Fassets\u002Fglm.png",[10,124,125,126,129,130,133,134,137,138,141,142,147,148,151],{},"​\tGLM是Open",[48,127,128],{},"GL"," ",[48,131,132],{},"M","athematics的缩写，它是一个",[48,135,136],{},"只有头文件的","库，也就是说我们只需包含对应的头文件就行了，",[48,139,140],{},"不用链接和编译","。GLM可以在它们的",[100,143,146],{"href":144,"rel":145},"https:\u002F\u002Fglm.g-truc.net\u002F0.9.8\u002Findex.html",[104],"网站","上下载。把头文件的根目录复制到你的",[48,149,150],{},"includes","文件夹，然后你就可以使用这个库了。",[10,153,154,155,158,159,162],{},"​\t我们来做些更有意思的事情，",[48,156,157],{},"让我们来旋转和缩放之前教程中的那个箱子","。首先我们把箱子",[48,160,161],{},"逆时针旋转90度。然后缩放0.5倍","，使它变成原来的一半大。我们先来创建变换矩阵：",[164,165,170],"pre",{"className":166,"code":167,"language":168,"meta":169,"style":169},"language-c++ shiki shiki-themes github-light github-dark","glm::mat4 trans;\ntrans = glm::rotate(trans, glm::radians(90.0f), glm::vec3(0.0, 0.0, 1.0));\ntrans = glm::scale(trans, glm::vec3(0.5, 0.5, 0.5));\n","c++","",[171,172,173,180,186],"code",{"__ignoreMap":169},[93,174,177],{"class":175,"line":176},"line",1,[93,178,179],{},"glm::mat4 trans;\n",[93,181,183],{"class":175,"line":182},2,[93,184,185],{},"trans = glm::rotate(trans, glm::radians(90.0f), glm::vec3(0.0, 0.0, 1.0));\n",[93,187,189],{"class":175,"line":188},3,[93,190,191],{},"trans = glm::scale(trans, glm::vec3(0.5, 0.5, 0.5));\n",[10,193,194,195,198],{},"​\t首先，我们把箱子在每个轴都缩放到0.5倍，然后沿z轴旋转90度。GLM希望它的角度是弧度制的(Radian)，所以我们使用",[171,196,197],{},"glm::radians","将角度转化为弧度。注意有纹理的那面矩形是在XY平面上的，所以我们需要把它绕着z轴旋转。因为我们把这个矩阵传递给了GLM的每个函数，GLM会自动将矩阵相乘，返回的结果是一个包括了多个变换的变换矩阵。",[10,200,201,202,205,206,209,210,212],{},"​\t下一个大问题是：如何把矩阵传递给着色器？我们在前面简单提到过GLSL里也有一个",[171,203,204],{},"mat4","类型。所以我们将",[48,207,208],{},"修改顶点着色器","让其接收一个",[171,211,204],{},"的uniform变量，然后再用矩阵uniform乘以位置向量：",[164,214,216],{"className":166,"code":215,"language":168,"meta":169,"style":169},"#version 330 core\nlayout (location = 0) in vec3 aPos;\nlayout (location = 1) in vec2 aTexCoord;\n\nout vec2 TexCoord;\n\nuniform mat4 transform;\n\nvoid main()\n{\n gl_Position = transform * vec4(aPos, 1.0f);\n TexCoord = vec2(aTexCoord.x, aTexCoord.y);\n}\n",[171,217,218,223,228,233,240,246,251,257,262,268,274,280,286],{"__ignoreMap":169},[93,219,220],{"class":175,"line":176},[93,221,222],{},"#version 330 core\n",[93,224,225],{"class":175,"line":182},[93,226,227],{},"layout (location = 0) in vec3 aPos;\n",[93,229,230],{"class":175,"line":188},[93,231,232],{},"layout (location = 1) in vec2 aTexCoord;\n",[93,234,236],{"class":175,"line":235},4,[93,237,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},true,"\n",[93,241,243],{"class":175,"line":242},5,[93,244,245],{},"out vec2 TexCoord;\n",[93,247,249],{"class":175,"line":248},6,[93,250,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,252,254],{"class":175,"line":253},7,[93,255,256],{},"uniform mat4 transform;\n",[93,258,260],{"class":175,"line":259},8,[93,261,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,263,265],{"class":175,"line":264},9,[93,266,267],{},"void main()\n",[93,269,271],{"class":175,"line":270},10,[93,272,273],{},"{\n",[93,275,277],{"class":175,"line":276},11,[93,278,279],{}," gl_Position = transform * vec4(aPos, 1.0f);\n",[93,281,283],{"class":175,"line":282},12,[93,284,285],{}," TexCoord = vec2(aTexCoord.x, aTexCoord.y);\n",[93,287,289],{"class":175,"line":288},13,[93,290,291],{},"}\n",[88,293,294,298],{},[10,295,296],{},[93,297,95],{},[10,299,300,301,304,305,308],{},"GLSL也有",[171,302,303],{},"mat2","和",[171,306,307],{},"mat3","类型从而允许了像向量一样的混合运算。前面提到的所有数学运算（像是标量-矩阵相乘，矩阵-向量相乘和矩阵-矩阵相乘）在矩阵类型里都可以使用。当出现特殊的矩阵运算的时候我们会特别说明。",[10,310,311,312,315,316,319],{},"​\t在把",[48,313,314],{},"位置向量传给gl_Position之前","，我们",[48,317,318],{},"先添加一个uniform，并且将其与变换矩阵相乘","。我们的箱子现在应该是原来的二分之一大小并（向左）旋转了90度。当然，我们仍需要把变换矩阵传递给着色器：",[164,321,323],{"className":166,"code":322,"language":168,"meta":169,"style":169},"unsigned int transformLoc = glGetUniformLocation(ourShader.ID, \"transform\");\nglUniformMatrix4fv(transformLoc, 1, GL_FALSE, glm::value_ptr(trans));\n",[171,324,325,330],{"__ignoreMap":169},[93,326,327],{"class":175,"line":176},[93,328,329],{},"unsigned int transformLoc = glGetUniformLocation(ourShader.ID, \"transform\");\n",[93,331,332],{"class":175,"line":182},[93,333,334],{},"glUniformMatrix4fv(transformLoc, 1, GL_FALSE, glm::value_ptr(trans));\n",[10,336,337,338,341,342,345,346,349,350,353,354,357],{},"​\t我们首先",[48,339,340],{},"查询uniform变量的地址","，然后用有",[171,343,344],{},"Matrix4fv","后缀的",[48,347,348],{},"glUniform函数把矩阵数据发送给着色器","。第一个参数你现在应该很熟悉了，它是uniform的位置值。第二个参数告诉OpenGL我们将要发送多少个矩阵，这里是1。第三个参数询问我们是否希望对我们的矩阵进行转置(Transpose)，也就是说交换我们矩阵的行和列。OpenGL开发者通常使用一种内部矩阵布局，叫做列主序(Column-major Ordering)布局。",[48,351,352],{},"GLM的默认布局就是列主序，所以并不需要转置矩阵","，我们填",[171,355,356],{},"GL_FALSE","。最后一个参数是真正的矩阵数据，但是GLM并不是把它们的矩阵储存为OpenGL所希望接受的那种，因此我们要先用GLM的自带的函数value_ptr来变换这些数据。",[10,359,360],{},"​\t我们创建了一个变换矩阵，在顶点着色器中声明了一个uniform，并把矩阵发送给了着色器，着色器会变换我们的顶点坐标。最后的结果应该看起来像这样：",[10,362,363],{},[32,364],{"alt":32,"src":365},".\u002Fassets\u002Ftransformations.png",[10,367,368],{},"完整代码：",[164,370,372],{"className":166,"code":371,"language":168,"meta":169,"style":169},"#include \u003Cglad\u002Fglad.h>\n#include \u003CGLFW\u002Fglfw3.h>\n#include \u003Copencv4\u002Fopencv2\u002Fopencv.hpp>\n#include \u003Ciostream>\n#include \u003Ccmath>\n#include \u003Cfilesystem>\n#include \"utils\u002Fshader.h\"\n#include \"utils\u002FglmCompute.h\"\n#include \"utils\u002Flogger.h\"\n\nusing namespace cv;\nusing namespace glm;\n\n\u002F\u002F 窗口大小改变时的回调函数\nvoid framebuffer_size_callback(GLFWwindow* window, int width, int height) {\n glViewport(0, 0, width, height);\n}\n\nstd::string getCurrentWorkingDirectory() {\n namespace fs = std::filesystem;\n try {\n \u002F\u002F current_path() 返回当前工作目录\n return fs::current_path().string();\n } catch (const fs::filesystem_error& e) {\n std::cerr \u003C\u003C \"Filesystem Error: \" \u003C\u003C e.what() \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n return \"\";\n }\n}\n\nint main() {\n mat4 trans = mat4(1.0f);\n trans = scale(trans, vec3(0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f)); \u002F\u002F 每个轴都缩放到0.5倍\n trans = rotate(trans, radians(90.0f), vec3(0.0f, 0.0f, 1.0f)); \u002F\u002F 沿z轴旋转90度\n\n auto path = getCurrentWorkingDirectory().append(\"\u002FAssets\u002Fimage.png\");\n auto path2 = getCurrentWorkingDirectory().append(\"\u002FAssets\u002Fimage2.png\");\n cv::Mat image = cv::imread(path);\n cv::Mat image2 = cv::imread(path2);\n cv::flip(image2, image2, 0);\n cv::cvtColor(image, image, cv::COLOR_BGR2RGB);\n cv::cvtColor(image2, image2, cv::COLOR_BGR2RGB);\n\n \u002F\u002F 转换为字节数组\n std::vector\u003Cuchar> imageData;\n std::vector\u003Cuchar> imageData2;\n if (image.empty()) {\n std::cerr \u003C\u003C \"Could not read the image: \" \u003C\u003C path \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n return 1;\n }\n if (image2.empty()) {\n std::cerr \u003C\u003C \"Could not read the image2: \" \u003C\u003C path2 \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n return 1;\n }\n \n std::cout \u003C\u003C \"Image 1 loaded: \" \u003C\u003C image.cols \u003C\u003C \"x\" \u003C\u003C image.rows \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n std::cout \u003C\u003C \"Image 2 loaded: \" \u003C\u003C image2.cols \u003C\u003C \"x\" \u003C\u003C image2.rows \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n\n cv::imencode(\".png\", image, imageData);\n cv::imencode(\".png\", image2, imageData2);\n\n\n \n \u002F\u002F 初始化GLFW\n glfwInit();\n glfwWindowHint(GLFW_CONTEXT_VERSION_MAJOR, 3);\n glfwWindowHint(GLFW_CONTEXT_VERSION_MINOR, 3);\n glfwWindowHint(GLFW_OPENGL_PROFILE, GLFW_OPENGL_CORE_PROFILE);\n\n \u002F\u002F 创建窗口\n GLFWwindow* window = glfwCreateWindow(800, 600, \"OpenGL Window\", NULL, NULL);\n if (window == NULL) {\n std::cout \u003C\u003C \"Failed to create GLFW window\" \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n glfwTerminate();\n return -1;\n }\n \n glfwMakeContextCurrent(window);\n glfwSetFramebufferSizeCallback(window, framebuffer_size_callback);\n\n \u002F\u002F 初始化GLAD\n if (!gladLoadGLLoader((GLADloadproc)glfwGetProcAddress)) {\n std::cout \u003C\u003C \"Failed to initialize GLAD\" \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n return -1;\n }\n\n float vertices[] = {\n \u002F\u002F ---- 位置 ---- ---- 颜色 ---- - 纹理坐标 -\n 0.5f, 0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f, 1.0f, 1.0f, \u002F\u002F 右上\n 0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f, \u002F\u002F 右下\n -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f, \u002F\u002F 左下\n -0.5f, 0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f, 1.0f \u002F\u002F 左上\n };\n \n unsigned int indices[] = {\n 0, 1, 3, \u002F\u002F 第一个三角形\n 1, 2, 3 \u002F\u002F 第二个三角形\n };\n\n \u002F\u002F 纹理\n unsigned int texture;\n unsigned int texture2;\n glGenTextures(1, &texture); \u002F\u002F 生成纹理\n glGenTextures(1, &texture2); \u002F\u002F 生成纹理\n \n \u002F\u002F 配置第一个纹理\n glActiveTexture(GL_TEXTURE0);\n glBindTexture(GL_TEXTURE_2D, texture); \u002F\u002F 绑定纹理\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_S, GL_REPEAT); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理环绕方式\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_T, GL_REPEAT); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理环绕方式\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MIN_FILTER, GL_LINEAR); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理过滤方式\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MAG_FILTER, GL_LINEAR); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理过滤方式\n glTexImage2D(GL_TEXTURE_2D, 0, GL_RGB, image.cols, image.rows, 0, GL_RGB, GL_UNSIGNED_BYTE, image.data); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理数据\n glGenerateMipmap(GL_TEXTURE_2D); \u002F\u002F 生成mipmap\n\n \u002F\u002F 配置第二个纹理\n glActiveTexture(GL_TEXTURE1);\n glBindTexture(GL_TEXTURE_2D, texture2); \u002F\u002F 绑定纹理\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_S, GL_REPEAT); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理环绕方式\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_T, GL_REPEAT); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理环绕方式 \n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MIN_FILTER, GL_LINEAR); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理过滤方式\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MAG_FILTER, GL_LINEAR); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理过滤方式\n glTexImage2D(GL_TEXTURE_2D, 0, GL_RGB, image2.cols, image2.rows, 0, GL_RGB, GL_UNSIGNED_BYTE, image2.data); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理数据\n glGenerateMipmap(GL_TEXTURE_2D); \u002F\u002F 生成mipmap\n\n\n \u002F\u002F 创建VAO\n unsigned int VAO;\n glGenVertexArrays(1, &VAO);\n glBindVertexArray(VAO); \u002F\u002F 绑定VAO\n\n \u002F\u002F 创建VBO\n unsigned int VBO;\n glGenBuffers(1, &VBO);\n glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, VBO); \u002F\u002F 绑定VBO\n glBufferData(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, sizeof(vertices), vertices, GL_STATIC_DRAW);\n\n \u002F\u002F 创建EBO\n unsigned int EBO;\n glGenBuffers(1, &EBO);\n glBindBuffer(GL_ELEMENT_ARRAY_BUFFER, EBO); \u002F\u002F 绑定EBO\n glBufferData(GL_ELEMENT_ARRAY_BUFFER, sizeof(indices), indices, GL_STATIC_DRAW);\n\n int nrAttributes;\n glGetIntegerv(GL_MAX_VERTEX_ATTRIBS, &nrAttributes);\n std::cout \u003C\u003C \"Maximum nr of vertex attributes supported: \" \u003C\u003C nrAttributes \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n\n \u002F\u002F 位置属性\n glVertexAttribPointer(0, 3, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 8 * sizeof(float), (void*)0);\n glEnableVertexAttribArray(0); \u002F\u002F 启用顶点属性\n\n \u002F\u002F 颜色属性\n glVertexAttribPointer(1, 3, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 8 * sizeof(float), (void*)(3 * sizeof(float)));\n glEnableVertexAttribArray(1);\n \n \u002F\u002F 纹理属性\n glVertexAttribPointer(2, 2, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 8 * sizeof(float), (void*)(6 * sizeof(float)));\n glEnableVertexAttribArray(2);\n\n \u002F\u002F 构建并编译着色器程序\n Shader ourShader(\"shader\u002Fcustom.vert\", \"shader\u002Ffragment.vert\");\n\n \u002F\u002F 渲染循环\n while (!glfwWindowShouldClose(window)) {\n \u002F\u002F 处理输入\n glfwPollEvents();\n \n \u002F\u002F 渲染指令\n glClearColor(0.2f, 0.3f, 0.3f, 1.0f);\n glClear(GL_COLOR_BUFFER_BIT);\n \n \u002F\u002F 使用着色器程序\n ourShader.use();\n \n \u002F\u002F 设置变换矩阵\n unsigned int transformLoc = glGetUniformLocation(ourShader.ID, \"transform\");\n glUniformMatrix4fv(transformLoc, 1, GL_FALSE, glm::value_ptr(trans));\n\n ourShader.setInt(\"ourTexture\", 0);\n ourShader.setInt(\"ourTexture2\", 1);\n \n glBindVertexArray(VAO);\n \n \u002F\u002F 绘制矩形（使用EBO）\n glDrawElements(GL_TRIANGLES, 6, GL_UNSIGNED_INT, 0);\n \n \u002F\u002F 交换缓冲区和检查IO事件\n glfwSwapBuffers(window);\n }\n\n \u002F\u002F 清理资源\n glDeleteVertexArrays(1, &VAO);\n glDeleteBuffers(1, &VBO);\n glDeleteBuffers(1, &EBO);\n glDeleteTextures(1, &texture);\n glDeleteTextures(1, &texture2);\n glfwTerminate();\n return 0;\n}\n\n#version 330 core\nout vec4 FragColor;\nin vec3 ourColor;\nin vec2 TexCoord;\nuniform sampler2D ourTexture;\nuniform sampler2D ourTexture2;\nvoid main()\n{\n FragColor = mix(texture(ourTexture, TexCoord), texture(ourTexture2, TexCoord), 0.5) * vec4(ourColor, 1.0);\n}\n\n#version 330 core\nlayout(location = 0) in vec3 aPos;\nlayout(location = 1) in vec3 aColor;\nlayout(location = 2) in vec2 aTexCoord;\nout vec3 ourColor; \nout vec2 TexCoord;\nuniform mat4 transform;\nvoid main()\n{\n gl_Position = transform * vec4(aPos, 1.0);\n ourColor = aColor;\n TexCoord = aTexCoord;\n}\n\n",[171,373,374,379,384,389,394,399,404,409,414,419,423,428,433,437,443,449,455,460,465,471,477,483,489,495,501,507,513,519,524,529,535,541,547,553,558,564,570,576,582,588,594,600,605,611,617,623,629,635,641,646,652,658,663,668,674,680,686,691,697,703,708,713,718,724,730,736,742,748,753,759,765,771,777,783,789,794,799,805,811,816,822,828,834,839,844,849,855,861,867,873,879,885,891,896,902,908,914,919,924,930,936,942,948,954,959,965,971,977,983,989,995,1001,1007,1013,1018,1024,1030,1036,1041,1047,1052,1057,1063,1068,1073,1078,1084,1090,1096,1102,1107,1113,1119,1125,1131,1137,1142,1148,1154,1160,1166,1172,1177,1183,1189,1195,1200,1206,1212,1218,1223,1229,1235,1241,1246,1252,1258,1264,1269,1275,1281,1286,1292,1298,1304,1310,1316,1322,1328,1334,1339,1345,1351,1356,1362,1368,1374,1379,1385,1391,1396,1402,1407,1413,1419,1424,1430,1436,1441,1446,1452,1458,1464,1470,1476,1482,1488,1494,1499,1504,1509,1515,1521,1527,1533,1539,1544,1549,1555,1560,1565,1570,1576,1582,1588,1594,1599,1604,1609,1614,1620,1626,1632],{"__ignoreMap":169},[93,375,376],{"class":175,"line":176},[93,377,378],{},"#include \u003Cglad\u002Fglad.h>\n",[93,380,381],{"class":175,"line":182},[93,382,383],{},"#include \u003CGLFW\u002Fglfw3.h>\n",[93,385,386],{"class":175,"line":188},[93,387,388],{},"#include \u003Copencv4\u002Fopencv2\u002Fopencv.hpp>\n",[93,390,391],{"class":175,"line":235},[93,392,393],{},"#include \u003Ciostream>\n",[93,395,396],{"class":175,"line":242},[93,397,398],{},"#include \u003Ccmath>\n",[93,400,401],{"class":175,"line":248},[93,402,403],{},"#include \u003Cfilesystem>\n",[93,405,406],{"class":175,"line":253},[93,407,408],{},"#include \"utils\u002Fshader.h\"\n",[93,410,411],{"class":175,"line":259},[93,412,413],{},"#include \"utils\u002FglmCompute.h\"\n",[93,415,416],{"class":175,"line":264},[93,417,418],{},"#include \"utils\u002Flogger.h\"\n",[93,420,421],{"class":175,"line":270},[93,422,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,424,425],{"class":175,"line":276},[93,426,427],{},"using namespace cv;\n",[93,429,430],{"class":175,"line":282},[93,431,432],{},"using namespace glm;\n",[93,434,435],{"class":175,"line":288},[93,436,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,438,440],{"class":175,"line":439},14,[93,441,442],{},"\u002F\u002F 窗口大小改变时的回调函数\n",[93,444,446],{"class":175,"line":445},15,[93,447,448],{},"void framebuffer_size_callback(GLFWwindow* window, int width, int height) {\n",[93,450,452],{"class":175,"line":451},16,[93,453,454],{}," glViewport(0, 0, width, height);\n",[93,456,458],{"class":175,"line":457},17,[93,459,291],{},[93,461,463],{"class":175,"line":462},18,[93,464,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,466,468],{"class":175,"line":467},19,[93,469,470],{},"std::string getCurrentWorkingDirectory() {\n",[93,472,474],{"class":175,"line":473},20,[93,475,476],{}," namespace fs = std::filesystem;\n",[93,478,480],{"class":175,"line":479},21,[93,481,482],{}," try {\n",[93,484,486],{"class":175,"line":485},22,[93,487,488],{}," \u002F\u002F current_path() 返回当前工作目录\n",[93,490,492],{"class":175,"line":491},23,[93,493,494],{}," return fs::current_path().string();\n",[93,496,498],{"class":175,"line":497},24,[93,499,500],{}," } catch (const fs::filesystem_error& e) {\n",[93,502,504],{"class":175,"line":503},25,[93,505,506],{}," std::cerr \u003C\u003C \"Filesystem Error: \" \u003C\u003C e.what() \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n",[93,508,510],{"class":175,"line":509},26,[93,511,512],{}," return \"\";\n",[93,514,516],{"class":175,"line":515},27,[93,517,518],{}," }\n",[93,520,522],{"class":175,"line":521},28,[93,523,291],{},[93,525,527],{"class":175,"line":526},29,[93,528,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,530,532],{"class":175,"line":531},30,[93,533,534],{},"int main() {\n",[93,536,538],{"class":175,"line":537},31,[93,539,540],{}," mat4 trans = mat4(1.0f);\n",[93,542,544],{"class":175,"line":543},32,[93,545,546],{}," trans = scale(trans, vec3(0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f)); \u002F\u002F 每个轴都缩放到0.5倍\n",[93,548,550],{"class":175,"line":549},33,[93,551,552],{}," trans = rotate(trans, radians(90.0f), vec3(0.0f, 0.0f, 1.0f)); \u002F\u002F 沿z轴旋转90度\n",[93,554,556],{"class":175,"line":555},34,[93,557,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,559,561],{"class":175,"line":560},35,[93,562,563],{}," auto path = getCurrentWorkingDirectory().append(\"\u002FAssets\u002Fimage.png\");\n",[93,565,567],{"class":175,"line":566},36,[93,568,569],{}," auto path2 = getCurrentWorkingDirectory().append(\"\u002FAssets\u002Fimage2.png\");\n",[93,571,573],{"class":175,"line":572},37,[93,574,575],{}," cv::Mat image = cv::imread(path);\n",[93,577,579],{"class":175,"line":578},38,[93,580,581],{}," cv::Mat image2 = cv::imread(path2);\n",[93,583,585],{"class":175,"line":584},39,[93,586,587],{}," cv::flip(image2, image2, 0);\n",[93,589,591],{"class":175,"line":590},40,[93,592,593],{}," cv::cvtColor(image, image, cv::COLOR_BGR2RGB);\n",[93,595,597],{"class":175,"line":596},41,[93,598,599],{}," cv::cvtColor(image2, image2, cv::COLOR_BGR2RGB);\n",[93,601,603],{"class":175,"line":602},42,[93,604,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,606,608],{"class":175,"line":607},43,[93,609,610],{}," \u002F\u002F 转换为字节数组\n",[93,612,614],{"class":175,"line":613},44,[93,615,616],{}," std::vector\u003Cuchar> imageData;\n",[93,618,620],{"class":175,"line":619},45,[93,621,622],{}," std::vector\u003Cuchar> imageData2;\n",[93,624,626],{"class":175,"line":625},46,[93,627,628],{}," if (image.empty()) {\n",[93,630,632],{"class":175,"line":631},47,[93,633,634],{}," std::cerr \u003C\u003C \"Could not read the image: \" \u003C\u003C path \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n",[93,636,638],{"class":175,"line":637},48,[93,639,640],{}," return 1;\n",[93,642,644],{"class":175,"line":643},49,[93,645,518],{},[93,647,649],{"class":175,"line":648},50,[93,650,651],{}," if (image2.empty()) {\n",[93,653,655],{"class":175,"line":654},51,[93,656,657],{}," std::cerr \u003C\u003C \"Could not read the image2: \" \u003C\u003C path2 \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n",[93,659,661],{"class":175,"line":660},52,[93,662,640],{},[93,664,666],{"class":175,"line":665},53,[93,667,518],{},[93,669,671],{"class":175,"line":670},54,[93,672,673],{}," \n",[93,675,677],{"class":175,"line":676},55,[93,678,679],{}," std::cout \u003C\u003C \"Image 1 loaded: \" \u003C\u003C image.cols \u003C\u003C \"x\" \u003C\u003C image.rows \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n",[93,681,683],{"class":175,"line":682},56,[93,684,685],{}," std::cout \u003C\u003C \"Image 2 loaded: \" \u003C\u003C image2.cols \u003C\u003C \"x\" \u003C\u003C image2.rows \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n",[93,687,689],{"class":175,"line":688},57,[93,690,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,692,694],{"class":175,"line":693},58,[93,695,696],{}," cv::imencode(\".png\", image, imageData);\n",[93,698,700],{"class":175,"line":699},59,[93,701,702],{}," cv::imencode(\".png\", image2, imageData2);\n",[93,704,706],{"class":175,"line":705},60,[93,707,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,709,711],{"class":175,"line":710},61,[93,712,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,714,716],{"class":175,"line":715},62,[93,717,673],{},[93,719,721],{"class":175,"line":720},63,[93,722,723],{}," \u002F\u002F 初始化GLFW\n",[93,725,727],{"class":175,"line":726},64,[93,728,729],{}," glfwInit();\n",[93,731,733],{"class":175,"line":732},65,[93,734,735],{}," glfwWindowHint(GLFW_CONTEXT_VERSION_MAJOR, 3);\n",[93,737,739],{"class":175,"line":738},66,[93,740,741],{}," glfwWindowHint(GLFW_CONTEXT_VERSION_MINOR, 3);\n",[93,743,745],{"class":175,"line":744},67,[93,746,747],{}," glfwWindowHint(GLFW_OPENGL_PROFILE, GLFW_OPENGL_CORE_PROFILE);\n",[93,749,751],{"class":175,"line":750},68,[93,752,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,754,756],{"class":175,"line":755},69,[93,757,758],{}," \u002F\u002F 创建窗口\n",[93,760,762],{"class":175,"line":761},70,[93,763,764],{}," GLFWwindow* window = glfwCreateWindow(800, 600, \"OpenGL Window\", NULL, NULL);\n",[93,766,768],{"class":175,"line":767},71,[93,769,770],{}," if (window == NULL) {\n",[93,772,774],{"class":175,"line":773},72,[93,775,776],{}," std::cout \u003C\u003C \"Failed to create GLFW window\" \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n",[93,778,780],{"class":175,"line":779},73,[93,781,782],{}," glfwTerminate();\n",[93,784,786],{"class":175,"line":785},74,[93,787,788],{}," return -1;\n",[93,790,792],{"class":175,"line":791},75,[93,793,518],{},[93,795,797],{"class":175,"line":796},76,[93,798,673],{},[93,800,802],{"class":175,"line":801},77,[93,803,804],{}," glfwMakeContextCurrent(window);\n",[93,806,808],{"class":175,"line":807},78,[93,809,810],{}," glfwSetFramebufferSizeCallback(window, framebuffer_size_callback);\n",[93,812,814],{"class":175,"line":813},79,[93,815,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,817,819],{"class":175,"line":818},80,[93,820,821],{}," \u002F\u002F 初始化GLAD\n",[93,823,825],{"class":175,"line":824},81,[93,826,827],{}," if (!gladLoadGLLoader((GLADloadproc)glfwGetProcAddress)) {\n",[93,829,831],{"class":175,"line":830},82,[93,832,833],{}," std::cout \u003C\u003C \"Failed to initialize GLAD\" \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n",[93,835,837],{"class":175,"line":836},83,[93,838,788],{},[93,840,842],{"class":175,"line":841},84,[93,843,518],{},[93,845,847],{"class":175,"line":846},85,[93,848,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,850,852],{"class":175,"line":851},86,[93,853,854],{}," float vertices[] = {\n",[93,856,858],{"class":175,"line":857},87,[93,859,860],{}," \u002F\u002F ---- 位置 ---- ---- 颜色 ---- - 纹理坐标 -\n",[93,862,864],{"class":175,"line":863},88,[93,865,866],{}," 0.5f, 0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f, 1.0f, 1.0f, \u002F\u002F 右上\n",[93,868,870],{"class":175,"line":869},89,[93,871,872],{}," 0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f, \u002F\u002F 右下\n",[93,874,876],{"class":175,"line":875},90,[93,877,878],{}," -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f, \u002F\u002F 左下\n",[93,880,882],{"class":175,"line":881},91,[93,883,884],{}," -0.5f, 0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f, 1.0f \u002F\u002F 左上\n",[93,886,888],{"class":175,"line":887},92,[93,889,890],{}," };\n",[93,892,894],{"class":175,"line":893},93,[93,895,673],{},[93,897,899],{"class":175,"line":898},94,[93,900,901],{}," unsigned int indices[] = {\n",[93,903,905],{"class":175,"line":904},95,[93,906,907],{}," 0, 1, 3, \u002F\u002F 第一个三角形\n",[93,909,911],{"class":175,"line":910},96,[93,912,913],{}," 1, 2, 3 \u002F\u002F 第二个三角形\n",[93,915,917],{"class":175,"line":916},97,[93,918,890],{},[93,920,922],{"class":175,"line":921},98,[93,923,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,925,927],{"class":175,"line":926},99,[93,928,929],{}," \u002F\u002F 纹理\n",[93,931,933],{"class":175,"line":932},100,[93,934,935],{}," unsigned int texture;\n",[93,937,939],{"class":175,"line":938},101,[93,940,941],{}," unsigned int texture2;\n",[93,943,945],{"class":175,"line":944},102,[93,946,947],{}," glGenTextures(1, &texture); \u002F\u002F 生成纹理\n",[93,949,951],{"class":175,"line":950},103,[93,952,953],{}," glGenTextures(1, &texture2); \u002F\u002F 生成纹理\n",[93,955,957],{"class":175,"line":956},104,[93,958,673],{},[93,960,962],{"class":175,"line":961},105,[93,963,964],{}," \u002F\u002F 配置第一个纹理\n",[93,966,968],{"class":175,"line":967},106,[93,969,970],{}," glActiveTexture(GL_TEXTURE0);\n",[93,972,974],{"class":175,"line":973},107,[93,975,976],{}," glBindTexture(GL_TEXTURE_2D, texture); \u002F\u002F 绑定纹理\n",[93,978,980],{"class":175,"line":979},108,[93,981,982],{}," glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_S, GL_REPEAT); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理环绕方式\n",[93,984,986],{"class":175,"line":985},109,[93,987,988],{}," glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_T, GL_REPEAT); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理环绕方式\n",[93,990,992],{"class":175,"line":991},110,[93,993,994],{}," glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MIN_FILTER, GL_LINEAR); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理过滤方式\n",[93,996,998],{"class":175,"line":997},111,[93,999,1000],{}," glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MAG_FILTER, GL_LINEAR); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理过滤方式\n",[93,1002,1004],{"class":175,"line":1003},112,[93,1005,1006],{}," glTexImage2D(GL_TEXTURE_2D, 0, GL_RGB, image.cols, image.rows, 0, GL_RGB, GL_UNSIGNED_BYTE, image.data); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理数据\n",[93,1008,1010],{"class":175,"line":1009},113,[93,1011,1012],{}," glGenerateMipmap(GL_TEXTURE_2D); \u002F\u002F 生成mipmap\n",[93,1014,1016],{"class":175,"line":1015},114,[93,1017,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,1019,1021],{"class":175,"line":1020},115,[93,1022,1023],{}," \u002F\u002F 配置第二个纹理\n",[93,1025,1027],{"class":175,"line":1026},116,[93,1028,1029],{}," glActiveTexture(GL_TEXTURE1);\n",[93,1031,1033],{"class":175,"line":1032},117,[93,1034,1035],{}," glBindTexture(GL_TEXTURE_2D, texture2); \u002F\u002F 绑定纹理\n",[93,1037,1039],{"class":175,"line":1038},118,[93,1040,982],{},[93,1042,1044],{"class":175,"line":1043},119,[93,1045,1046],{}," glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_T, GL_REPEAT); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理环绕方式 \n",[93,1048,1050],{"class":175,"line":1049},120,[93,1051,994],{},[93,1053,1055],{"class":175,"line":1054},121,[93,1056,1000],{},[93,1058,1060],{"class":175,"line":1059},122,[93,1061,1062],{}," glTexImage2D(GL_TEXTURE_2D, 0, GL_RGB, image2.cols, image2.rows, 0, GL_RGB, GL_UNSIGNED_BYTE, image2.data); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理数据\n",[93,1064,1066],{"class":175,"line":1065},123,[93,1067,1012],{},[93,1069,1071],{"class":175,"line":1070},124,[93,1072,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,1074,1076],{"class":175,"line":1075},125,[93,1077,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,1079,1081],{"class":175,"line":1080},126,[93,1082,1083],{}," \u002F\u002F 创建VAO\n",[93,1085,1087],{"class":175,"line":1086},127,[93,1088,1089],{}," unsigned int VAO;\n",[93,1091,1093],{"class":175,"line":1092},128,[93,1094,1095],{}," glGenVertexArrays(1, &VAO);\n",[93,1097,1099],{"class":175,"line":1098},129,[93,1100,1101],{}," glBindVertexArray(VAO); \u002F\u002F 绑定VAO\n",[93,1103,1105],{"class":175,"line":1104},130,[93,1106,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,1108,1110],{"class":175,"line":1109},131,[93,1111,1112],{}," \u002F\u002F 创建VBO\n",[93,1114,1116],{"class":175,"line":1115},132,[93,1117,1118],{}," unsigned int VBO;\n",[93,1120,1122],{"class":175,"line":1121},133,[93,1123,1124],{}," glGenBuffers(1, &VBO);\n",[93,1126,1128],{"class":175,"line":1127},134,[93,1129,1130],{}," glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, VBO); \u002F\u002F 绑定VBO\n",[93,1132,1134],{"class":175,"line":1133},135,[93,1135,1136],{}," glBufferData(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, sizeof(vertices), vertices, GL_STATIC_DRAW);\n",[93,1138,1140],{"class":175,"line":1139},136,[93,1141,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,1143,1145],{"class":175,"line":1144},137,[93,1146,1147],{}," \u002F\u002F 创建EBO\n",[93,1149,1151],{"class":175,"line":1150},138,[93,1152,1153],{}," unsigned int EBO;\n",[93,1155,1157],{"class":175,"line":1156},139,[93,1158,1159],{}," glGenBuffers(1, &EBO);\n",[93,1161,1163],{"class":175,"line":1162},140,[93,1164,1165],{}," glBindBuffer(GL_ELEMENT_ARRAY_BUFFER, EBO); \u002F\u002F 绑定EBO\n",[93,1167,1169],{"class":175,"line":1168},141,[93,1170,1171],{}," glBufferData(GL_ELEMENT_ARRAY_BUFFER, sizeof(indices), indices, GL_STATIC_DRAW);\n",[93,1173,1175],{"class":175,"line":1174},142,[93,1176,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,1178,1180],{"class":175,"line":1179},143,[93,1181,1182],{}," int nrAttributes;\n",[93,1184,1186],{"class":175,"line":1185},144,[93,1187,1188],{}," glGetIntegerv(GL_MAX_VERTEX_ATTRIBS, &nrAttributes);\n",[93,1190,1192],{"class":175,"line":1191},145,[93,1193,1194],{}," std::cout \u003C\u003C \"Maximum nr of vertex attributes supported: \" \u003C\u003C nrAttributes \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n",[93,1196,1198],{"class":175,"line":1197},146,[93,1199,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,1201,1203],{"class":175,"line":1202},147,[93,1204,1205],{}," \u002F\u002F 位置属性\n",[93,1207,1209],{"class":175,"line":1208},148,[93,1210,1211],{}," glVertexAttribPointer(0, 3, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 8 * sizeof(float), (void*)0);\n",[93,1213,1215],{"class":175,"line":1214},149,[93,1216,1217],{}," glEnableVertexAttribArray(0); \u002F\u002F 启用顶点属性\n",[93,1219,1221],{"class":175,"line":1220},150,[93,1222,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,1224,1226],{"class":175,"line":1225},151,[93,1227,1228],{}," \u002F\u002F 颜色属性\n",[93,1230,1232],{"class":175,"line":1231},152,[93,1233,1234],{}," glVertexAttribPointer(1, 3, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 8 * sizeof(float), (void*)(3 * sizeof(float)));\n",[93,1236,1238],{"class":175,"line":1237},153,[93,1239,1240],{}," glEnableVertexAttribArray(1);\n",[93,1242,1244],{"class":175,"line":1243},154,[93,1245,673],{},[93,1247,1249],{"class":175,"line":1248},155,[93,1250,1251],{}," \u002F\u002F 纹理属性\n",[93,1253,1255],{"class":175,"line":1254},156,[93,1256,1257],{}," glVertexAttribPointer(2, 2, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 8 * sizeof(float), (void*)(6 * sizeof(float)));\n",[93,1259,1261],{"class":175,"line":1260},157,[93,1262,1263],{}," glEnableVertexAttribArray(2);\n",[93,1265,1267],{"class":175,"line":1266},158,[93,1268,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,1270,1272],{"class":175,"line":1271},159,[93,1273,1274],{}," \u002F\u002F 构建并编译着色器程序\n",[93,1276,1278],{"class":175,"line":1277},160,[93,1279,1280],{}," Shader ourShader(\"shader\u002Fcustom.vert\", \"shader\u002Ffragment.vert\");\n",[93,1282,1284],{"class":175,"line":1283},161,[93,1285,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,1287,1289],{"class":175,"line":1288},162,[93,1290,1291],{}," \u002F\u002F 渲染循环\n",[93,1293,1295],{"class":175,"line":1294},163,[93,1296,1297],{}," while (!glfwWindowShouldClose(window)) {\n",[93,1299,1301],{"class":175,"line":1300},164,[93,1302,1303],{}," \u002F\u002F 处理输入\n",[93,1305,1307],{"class":175,"line":1306},165,[93,1308,1309],{}," glfwPollEvents();\n",[93,1311,1313],{"class":175,"line":1312},166,[93,1314,1315],{}," \n",[93,1317,1319],{"class":175,"line":1318},167,[93,1320,1321],{}," \u002F\u002F 渲染指令\n",[93,1323,1325],{"class":175,"line":1324},168,[93,1326,1327],{}," glClearColor(0.2f, 0.3f, 0.3f, 1.0f);\n",[93,1329,1331],{"class":175,"line":1330},169,[93,1332,1333],{}," glClear(GL_COLOR_BUFFER_BIT);\n",[93,1335,1337],{"class":175,"line":1336},170,[93,1338,1315],{},[93,1340,1342],{"class":175,"line":1341},171,[93,1343,1344],{}," \u002F\u002F 使用着色器程序\n",[93,1346,1348],{"class":175,"line":1347},172,[93,1349,1350],{}," ourShader.use();\n",[93,1352,1354],{"class":175,"line":1353},173,[93,1355,1315],{},[93,1357,1359],{"class":175,"line":1358},174,[93,1360,1361],{}," \u002F\u002F 设置变换矩阵\n",[93,1363,1365],{"class":175,"line":1364},175,[93,1366,1367],{}," unsigned int transformLoc = glGetUniformLocation(ourShader.ID, \"transform\");\n",[93,1369,1371],{"class":175,"line":1370},176,[93,1372,1373],{}," glUniformMatrix4fv(transformLoc, 1, GL_FALSE, glm::value_ptr(trans));\n",[93,1375,1377],{"class":175,"line":1376},177,[93,1378,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,1380,1382],{"class":175,"line":1381},178,[93,1383,1384],{}," ourShader.setInt(\"ourTexture\", 0);\n",[93,1386,1388],{"class":175,"line":1387},179,[93,1389,1390],{}," ourShader.setInt(\"ourTexture2\", 1);\n",[93,1392,1394],{"class":175,"line":1393},180,[93,1395,1315],{},[93,1397,1399],{"class":175,"line":1398},181,[93,1400,1401],{}," glBindVertexArray(VAO);\n",[93,1403,1405],{"class":175,"line":1404},182,[93,1406,1315],{},[93,1408,1410],{"class":175,"line":1409},183,[93,1411,1412],{}," \u002F\u002F 绘制矩形（使用EBO）\n",[93,1414,1416],{"class":175,"line":1415},184,[93,1417,1418],{}," glDrawElements(GL_TRIANGLES, 6, GL_UNSIGNED_INT, 0);\n",[93,1420,1422],{"class":175,"line":1421},185,[93,1423,1315],{},[93,1425,1427],{"class":175,"line":1426},186,[93,1428,1429],{}," \u002F\u002F 交换缓冲区和检查IO事件\n",[93,1431,1433],{"class":175,"line":1432},187,[93,1434,1435],{}," glfwSwapBuffers(window);\n",[93,1437,1439],{"class":175,"line":1438},188,[93,1440,518],{},[93,1442,1444],{"class":175,"line":1443},189,[93,1445,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,1447,1449],{"class":175,"line":1448},190,[93,1450,1451],{}," \u002F\u002F 清理资源\n",[93,1453,1455],{"class":175,"line":1454},191,[93,1456,1457],{}," glDeleteVertexArrays(1, &VAO);\n",[93,1459,1461],{"class":175,"line":1460},192,[93,1462,1463],{}," glDeleteBuffers(1, &VBO);\n",[93,1465,1467],{"class":175,"line":1466},193,[93,1468,1469],{}," glDeleteBuffers(1, &EBO);\n",[93,1471,1473],{"class":175,"line":1472},194,[93,1474,1475],{}," glDeleteTextures(1, &texture);\n",[93,1477,1479],{"class":175,"line":1478},195,[93,1480,1481],{}," glDeleteTextures(1, &texture2);\n",[93,1483,1485],{"class":175,"line":1484},196,[93,1486,1487],{}," glfwTerminate();\n",[93,1489,1491],{"class":175,"line":1490},197,[93,1492,1493],{}," return 0;\n",[93,1495,1497],{"class":175,"line":1496},198,[93,1498,291],{},[93,1500,1502],{"class":175,"line":1501},199,[93,1503,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,1505,1507],{"class":175,"line":1506},200,[93,1508,222],{},[93,1510,1512],{"class":175,"line":1511},201,[93,1513,1514],{},"out vec4 FragColor;\n",[93,1516,1518],{"class":175,"line":1517},202,[93,1519,1520],{},"in vec3 ourColor;\n",[93,1522,1524],{"class":175,"line":1523},203,[93,1525,1526],{},"in vec2 TexCoord;\n",[93,1528,1530],{"class":175,"line":1529},204,[93,1531,1532],{},"uniform sampler2D ourTexture;\n",[93,1534,1536],{"class":175,"line":1535},205,[93,1537,1538],{},"uniform sampler2D ourTexture2;\n",[93,1540,1542],{"class":175,"line":1541},206,[93,1543,267],{},[93,1545,1547],{"class":175,"line":1546},207,[93,1548,273],{},[93,1550,1552],{"class":175,"line":1551},208,[93,1553,1554],{}," FragColor = mix(texture(ourTexture, TexCoord), texture(ourTexture2, TexCoord), 0.5) * vec4(ourColor, 1.0);\n",[93,1556,1558],{"class":175,"line":1557},209,[93,1559,291],{},[93,1561,1563],{"class":175,"line":1562},210,[93,1564,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,1566,1568],{"class":175,"line":1567},211,[93,1569,222],{},[93,1571,1573],{"class":175,"line":1572},212,[93,1574,1575],{},"layout(location = 0) in vec3 aPos;\n",[93,1577,1579],{"class":175,"line":1578},213,[93,1580,1581],{},"layout(location = 1) in vec3 aColor;\n",[93,1583,1585],{"class":175,"line":1584},214,[93,1586,1587],{},"layout(location = 2) in vec2 aTexCoord;\n",[93,1589,1591],{"class":175,"line":1590},215,[93,1592,1593],{},"out vec3 ourColor; \n",[93,1595,1597],{"class":175,"line":1596},216,[93,1598,245],{},[93,1600,1602],{"class":175,"line":1601},217,[93,1603,256],{},[93,1605,1607],{"class":175,"line":1606},218,[93,1608,267],{},[93,1610,1612],{"class":175,"line":1611},219,[93,1613,273],{},[93,1615,1617],{"class":175,"line":1616},220,[93,1618,1619],{}," gl_Position = transform * vec4(aPos, 1.0);\n",[93,1621,1623],{"class":175,"line":1622},221,[93,1624,1625],{}," ourColor = aColor;\n",[93,1627,1629],{"class":175,"line":1628},222,[93,1630,1631],{}," TexCoord = aTexCoord;\n",[93,1633,1635],{"class":175,"line":1634},223,[93,1636,291],{},[20,1638,1639],{"id":1639},"坐标变换",[10,1641,1642,1643,1646],{},"​\t为了将坐标从一个坐标系变换到另一个坐标系，我们需要用到几个变换矩阵，最重要的几个分别是",[48,1644,1645],{},"模型(Model)、观察(View)、投影(Projection)三个矩阵","。我们的顶点坐标起始于局部空间(Local Space)，在这里它称为局部坐标(Local Coordinate)，它在之后会变为世界坐标(World Coordinate)，观察坐标(View Coordinate)，裁剪坐标(Clip Coordinate)，并最后以屏幕坐标(Screen Coordinate)的形式结束。下面的这张图展示了整个流程以及各个变换过程做了什么：",[10,1648,1649],{},[32,1650],{"alt":1651,"src":1652},"coordinate_systems",".\u002Fassets\u002Fcoordinate_systems.png",[1654,1655,1656,1663,1670,1677,1682],"ol",{},[1657,1658,1659,1660,106],"li",{},"局部坐标是",[48,1661,1662],{},"对象相对于局部原点的坐标，也是物体起始的坐标",[1657,1664,1665,1666,1669],{},"下一步是",[48,1667,1668],{},"将局部坐标变换为世界空间坐标","，世界空间坐标是处于一个更大的空间范围的。这些坐标相对于世界的全局原点，它们会和其它物体一起相对于世界的原点进行摆放。",[1657,1671,1672,1673,1676],{},"接下来",[48,1674,1675],{},"我们将世界坐标变换为观察空间坐标","，使得每个坐标都是从摄像机或者说观察者的角度进行观察的。",[1657,1678,1679,106],{},[48,1680,1681],{},"坐标到达观察空间之后，我们需要将其投影到裁剪坐标。裁剪坐标会被处理至-1.0到1.0的范围内，并判断哪些顶点将会出现在屏幕上",[1657,1683,1684,1685,1688],{},"最后，我们将裁剪坐标变换为屏幕坐标，",[48,1686,1687],{},"我们将使用一个叫做视口变换(Viewport Transform)的过程。视口变换将位于-1.0到1.0范围的坐标变换到由glViewport函数所定义的坐标范围内","。最后变换出来的坐标将会送到光栅器，将其转化为片段。",[10,1690,1691],{},"​\t你可能已经大致了解了每个坐标空间的作用。我们之所以将顶点变换到各个不同的空间的原因是有些操作在特定的坐标系统中才有意义且更方便。例如，当需要对物体进行修改的时候，在局部空间中来操作会更说得通；如果要对一个物体做出一个相对于其它物体位置的操作时，在世界坐标系中来做这个才更说得通，等等。如果我们愿意，我们也可以定义一个直接从局部空间变换到裁剪空间的变换矩阵，但那样会失去很多灵活性。",[10,1693,1694],{},"接下来我们将要更仔细地讨论各个坐标系统。",[64,1696,1697],{"id":1697},"局部空间",[10,1699,1700,1701,1704,1705,1708],{},"​\t局部空间是",[48,1702,1703],{},"指物体所在的坐标空间，即对象最开始所在的地方","。想象你在一个建模软件（比如说Blender）中创建了一个立方体。你创建的立方体的原点有可能位于(0, 0, 0)，即便它有可能最后在程序中处于完全不同的位置。甚至有可能你创建的所有模型都以(0, 0, 0)为初始位置（译注：然而它们会最终出现在世界的不同位置）。所以，你的模型的所有顶点都是在",[48,1706,1707],{},"局部","空间中：它们相对于你的物体来说都是局部的。",[10,1710,1711],{},"​\t我们一直使用的那个箱子的顶点是被设定在-0.5到0.5的坐标范围中，(0, 0)是它的原点。这些都是局部坐标。",[64,1713,1714],{"id":1714},"世界空间",[10,1716,1717,1718,1721,1722,106],{},"​\t如果我们",[48,1719,1720],{},"将我们所有的物体导入到程序当中，它们有可能会全挤在世界的原点(0, 0, 0)上","，这并不是我们想要的结果。我们想为每一个物体定义一个位置，从而能在更大的世界当中放置它们。世界空间中的坐标正如其名：是指顶点相对于（游戏）世界的坐标。如果你希望将物体分散在世界上摆放（特别是非常真实的那样），这就是你希望物体变换到的空间。",[48,1723,1724],{},"物体的坐标将会从局部变换到世界空间；该变换是由模型矩阵(Model Matrix)实现的",[10,1726,1727,1728,1731],{},"​\t模型矩阵是一种变换矩阵，它能",[48,1729,1730],{},"通过对物体进行位移、缩放、旋转来将它置于它本应该在的位置或朝向","。你可以将它想像为变换一个房子，你需要先将它缩小（它在局部空间中太大了），并将其位移至郊区的一个小镇，然后在y轴上往左旋转一点以搭配附近的房子。你也可以把上一节将箱子到处摆放在场景中用的那个矩阵大致看作一个模型矩阵；我们将箱子的局部坐标变换到场景\u002F世界中的不同位置。",[64,1733,1734],{"id":1734},"观察空间",[10,1736,1737,1738,1741,1742,1745],{},"​\t观察空间经常被人们称之",[48,1739,1740],{},"OpenGL的摄像机(Camera)（所以有时也称为摄像机空间(Camera Space)或视觉空间(Eye Space)）","。观察空间是将世界空间坐标转化为用户视野前方的坐标而产生的结果。因此观察空间就是从摄像机的视角所观察到的空间。",[48,1743,1744],{},"而这通常是由一系列的位移和旋转的组合来完成，平移\u002F旋转场景从而使得特定的对象被变换到摄像机的前方","。这些组合在一起的变换通常存储在一个观察矩阵(View Matrix)里，它被用来将世界坐标变换到观察空间。在下一节中我们将深入讨论如何创建一个这样的观察矩阵来模拟一个摄像机。",[64,1747,1748],{"id":1748},"裁剪空间",[10,1750,1751],{},"​\t在一个顶点着色器运行的最后，OpenGL期望所有的坐标都能落在一个特定的范围内，且任何在这个范围之外的点都应该被裁剪掉(Clipped)。被裁剪掉的坐标就会被忽略，所以剩下的坐标就将变为屏幕上可见的片段。这也就是裁剪空间(Clip Space)名字的由来。",[10,1753,1754],{},"​\t因为将所有可见的坐标都指定在-1.0到1.0的范围内不是很直观，所以我们会指定自己的坐标集(Coordinate Set)并将它变换回标准化设备坐标系，就像OpenGL期望的那样。",[10,1756,1757],{},"​\t为了将顶点坐标从观察变换到裁剪空间，我们需要定义一个投影矩阵(Projection Matrix)，它指定了一个范围的坐标，比如在每个维度上的-1000到1000。投影矩阵接着会将在这个指定的范围内的坐标变换为标准化设备坐标的范围(-1.0, 1.0)。所有在范围外的坐标不会被映射到在-1.0到1.0的范围之间，所以会被裁剪掉。在上面这个投影矩阵所指定的范围内，坐标(1250, 500, 750)将是不可见的，这是由于它的x坐标超出了范围，它被转化为一个大于1.0的标准化设备坐标，所以被裁剪掉了。",[88,1759,1760,1764],{},[10,1761,1762],{},[93,1763,95],{},[10,1765,1766],{},"如果只是图元(Primitive)，例如三角形，的一部分超出了裁剪体积(Clipping Volume)，则OpenGL会重新构建这个三角形为一个或多个三角形让其能够适合这个裁剪范围。",[10,1768,1769,1770,1773,1774,1777],{},"​\t由投影矩阵创建的",[48,1771,1772],{},"观察箱","(Viewing Box)被称为",[48,1775,1776],{},"平截头体(Frustum)，每个出现在平截头体范围内的坐标都会最终出现在用户的屏幕上","。将特定范围内的坐标转化到标准化设备坐标系的过程（而且它很容易被映射到2D观察空间坐标）被称之为投影(Projection)，因为使用投影矩阵能将3D坐标投影(Project)到很容易映射到2D的标准化设备坐标系中。",[10,1779,1780,1781,1784],{},"​\t一旦",[48,1782,1783],{},"所有顶点被变换到裁剪空间，最终的操作——透视除法(Perspective Division)将会执行，在这个过程中我们将位置向量的x，y，z分量分别除以向量的齐次w分量","；透视除法是将4D裁剪空间坐标变换为3D标准化设备坐标的过程。这一步会在每一个顶点着色器运行的最后被自动执行。",[10,1786,1787],{},"​\t在这一阶段之后，最终的坐标将会被映射到屏幕空间中（使用glViewport中的设定），并被变换成片段。",[10,1789,1790],{},"​\t将观察坐标变换为裁剪坐标的投影矩阵可以为两种不同的形式，每种形式都定义了不同的平截头体。我们可以选择创建一个正射投影矩阵(Orthographic Projection Matrix)或一个透视投影矩阵(Perspective Projection Matrix)。",[1792,1793,1794],"h3",{"id":1794},"正射投影",[10,1796,1797],{},"​\t消除透视效果 (等比例缩放)。这是正射投影与透视投影（Perspective Projection）最本质的区别：",[1799,1800,1801],"ul",{},[1657,1802,1803,1806,1807,1810,1811],{},[48,1804,1805],{},"正射投影："," 无论物体离摄像机多远或多近，它们在屏幕上显示的尺寸",[48,1808,1809],{},"始终保持不变","。近处的物体不会显得更大，远处的物体也不会显得更小。\n",[1799,1812,1813],{},[1657,1814,1815,1818],{},[48,1816,1817],{},"应用场景："," 2D 游戏、工程制图、用户界面（UI）渲染、地图编辑、需要保持物体精确尺寸的医学图像。",[10,1820,1821,1822,1825],{},"​\t正射投影矩阵定义了一个类似立方体的平截头箱，",[48,1823,1824],{},"它定义了一个裁剪空间，在这空间之外的顶点都会被裁剪掉","。创建一个正射投影矩阵需要指定可见平截头体的宽、高和长度。在使用正射投影矩阵变换至裁剪空间之后处于这个平截头体内的所有坐标将不会被裁剪掉。它的平截头体看起来像一个容器：",[10,1827,1828],{},[32,1829],{"alt":1830,"src":1831},"orthographic projection frustum",".\u002Fassets\u002Forthographic_frustum.png",[10,1833,69,1834,1837],{},[48,1835,1836],{},"上面的平截头体定义了可见的坐标，它由宽、高、近(Near)平面和远(Far)平面所指定","。任何出现在近平面之前或远平面之后的坐标都会被裁剪掉。正射平截头体直接将平截头体内部的所有坐标映射为标准化设备坐标，因为每个向量的w分量都没有进行改变；如果w分量等于1.0，透视除法则不会改变这个坐标。",[10,1839,1840,1841,1844],{},"​\t要创建一个正射投影矩阵，我们可以使用GLM的内置函数",[171,1842,1843],{},"glm::ortho","：",[164,1846,1848],{"className":166,"code":1847,"language":168,"meta":169,"style":169},"glm::ortho(0.0f, 800.0f, 0.0f, 600.0f, 0.1f, 100.0f);\n",[171,1849,1850],{"__ignoreMap":169},[93,1851,1852],{"class":175,"line":176},[93,1853,1847],{},[10,1855,1856,1857,1860,1861,1864,1865,1868],{},"​\t前两个参数",[48,1858,1859],{},"指定了平截头体的左右坐标","，",[48,1862,1863],{},"第三和第四参数指定了平截头体的底部和顶部","。通过这四个参数我们定义了近平面和远平面的大小，",[48,1866,1867],{},"然后第五和第六个参数则定义了近平面和远平面的距离","。这个投影矩阵会将处于这些x，y，z值范围内的坐标变换为标准化设备坐标。",[10,1870,1871,1872,1875],{},"​\t正射投影矩阵",[48,1873,1874],{},"直接将坐标映射到2D平面中，即你的屏幕","，但实际上一个直接的投影矩阵会产生不真实的结果，因为这个投影没有将透视(Perspective)考虑进去。所以我们需要透视投影矩阵来解决这个问题。",[1792,1877,1878],{"id":1878},"透视投影",[10,1880,1881,1882,1885],{},"​\t如果你曾经体验过",[48,1883,1884],{},"实际生活","给你带来的景象，你就会注意到离你越远的东西看起来更小。这个奇怪的效果称之为透视(Perspective)。透视的效果在我们看一条无限长的高速公路或铁路时尤其明显，正如下面图片显示的那样：",[10,1887,1888],{},[32,1889],{"alt":1890,"src":1891},"perspective",".\u002Fassets\u002Fperspective.png",[10,1893,1894,1895,1898],{},"​\t正如你看到的那样，",[48,1896,1897],{},"由于透视，这两条线在很远的地方看起来会相交。这正是透视投影想要模仿的效果，它是使用透视投影矩阵来完成的","。这个投影矩阵将给定的平截头体范围映射到裁剪空间，除此之外还修改了每个顶点坐标的w值，从而使得离观察者越远的顶点坐标w分量越大。被变换到裁剪空间的坐标都会在-w到w的范围之间（任何大于这个范围的坐标都会被裁剪掉）。OpenGL要求所有可见的坐标都落在-1.0到1.0范围内，作为顶点着色器最后的输出，因此，一旦坐标在裁剪空间内之后，透视除法就会被应用到裁剪空间坐标上：",[10,1900,1901],{},[32,1902],{"alt":1903,"src":1904},"image-20251010034829888",".\u002Fassets\u002Fimage-20251010034829888.png",[10,1906,69,1907,1910,1911,1914,1915,1918,1919,106],{},[48,1908,1909],{},"顶点坐标的每个分量都会除以它的w分量","，距",[48,1912,1913],{},"离观察者越远顶点坐标就会越小","。这是w分量重要的另一个原因，它能够",[48,1916,1917],{},"帮助我们进行透视投影。最后的结果坐标就是处于标准化设备空间中的","。如果你对正射投影矩阵和透视投影矩阵是如何计算的很感兴趣（且不会对数学感到恐惧的话）我推荐这篇由Songho写的",[100,1920,1923],{"href":1921,"rel":1922},"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.songho.ca\u002Fopengl\u002Fgl_projectionmatrix.html",[104],"文章",[10,1925,1926],{},"​\t在GLM中可以这样创建一个透视投影矩阵：",[164,1928,1930],{"className":166,"code":1929,"language":168,"meta":169,"style":169},"glm::mat4 proj = glm::perspective(glm::radians(45.0f), (float)width\u002F(float)height, 0.1f, 100.0f);\n",[171,1931,1932],{"__ignoreMap":169},[93,1933,1934],{"class":175,"line":176},[93,1935,1929],{},[10,1937,1938,1939,1942,1943,1946,1947,1950,1951,1954,1955,1958,1959,1962],{},"​\t同样，",[171,1940,1941],{},"glm::perspective","所做的其实就是创建了一个定义了可视空间的大",[48,1944,1945],{},"平截头体","，任何在",[48,1948,1949],{},"这个平截头体以外的东西最后都不会出现在裁剪空间体积内","，并且",[48,1952,1953],{},"将会受到裁剪","。一个",[48,1956,1957],{},"透视平截头体可以被看作一个不均匀形状的箱子","，在这个箱子内部的",[48,1960,1961],{},"每个坐标都会被映射到裁剪空间上的一个点","。下面是一张透视平截头体的图片：",[10,1964,1965],{},[32,1966],{"alt":1967,"src":1968}," perspective_frustum",".\u002Fassets\u002Fperspective_frustum.png",[10,1970,1971,1972,1975,1976,304,1979,1982,1983,106],{},"​\t它的第一个",[48,1973,1974],{},"参数定义了fov的值，它表示的是视野(Field of View)，并且设置了观察空间的大小。如果想要一个真实的观察效果，它的值通常设置为45.0f","，但想要一个毁灭战士(DOOM,经典的系列第一人称射击游戏)风格的结果你可以将其设置一个更大的值。第二个参数设置了宽高比，由视口的宽除以高所得。第三和第四个参数设置了平截头体的",[48,1977,1978],{},"近",[48,1980,1981],{},"远","平面。",[48,1984,1985],{},"我们通常设置近距离为0.1f，而远距离设为100.0f。所有在近平面和远平面内且处于平截头体内的顶点都会被渲染",[88,1987,1988,1992],{},[10,1989,1990],{},[93,1991,95],{},[10,1993,1994,1995,1999],{},"当你把透视矩阵的 ",[1996,1997,1998],"em",{},"near"," 值设置太大时（如10.0f），OpenGL会将靠近摄像机的坐标（在0.0f和10.0f之间）都裁剪掉，这会导致一个你在游戏中很熟悉的视觉效果：在太过靠近一个物体的时候你的视线会直接穿过去。",[10,2001,2002,2003,2006,2007,2010,2011,2014,2015,2018],{},"​\t当使用正射投影时，",[48,2004,2005],{},"每一个顶点坐标都会直接映射到裁剪空间中而不经过任何精细的透视除法","（它仍然会进行透视除法，",[48,2008,2009],{},"只是w分量没有被改变（它保持为1）","，因此没有起作用）。因为正射投影没有使用透视，远处的物体不会显得更小，所以产生奇怪的视觉效果。由于这个原因，",[48,2012,2013],{},"正射投影主要用于二维渲染以及一些建筑或工程的程序","，在这些场景中我们更希望顶点不会被透视所干扰。某些如 ",[1996,2016,2017],{},"Blender"," 等进行三维建模的软件有时在建模时也会使用正射投影，因为它在各个维度下都更准确地描绘了每个物体。下面你能够看到在Blender里面使用两种投影方式的对比：",[10,2020,2021],{},[32,2022],{"alt":2023,"src":2024},"perspective_orthographic",".\u002Fassets\u002Fperspective_orthographic.png",[10,2026,2027,2028,2031,2032,106],{},"你可以看到，使用",[48,2029,2030],{},"透视投影的话，远处的顶点看起来比较小","，而在",[48,2033,2034],{},"正射投影中每个顶点距离观察者的距离都是一样的",[64,2036,2037],{"id":2037},"把它们都组合到一起",[10,2039,2040],{},"​\t我们为上述的每一个步骤都创建了一个变换矩阵：模型矩阵、观察矩阵和投影矩阵。一个顶点坐标将会根据以下过程被变换到裁剪坐标：",[10,2042,2043],{},[32,2044],{"alt":2045,"src":2046},"image-20251010035151109",".\u002Fassets\u002Fimage-20251010035151109.png",[10,2048,2049],{},"​\t注意矩阵运算的顺序是相反的（记住我们需要从右往左阅读矩阵的乘法）。最后的顶点应该被赋值到顶点着色器中的gl_Position，OpenGL将会自动进行透视除法和裁剪。",[88,2051,2052,2057,2062],{},[10,2053,2054],{},[93,2055,2056],{},"!TIP",[10,2058,2059],{},[48,2060,2061],{},"然后呢？",[10,2063,2064,2065,2068,2069,2072,2073,2076,2077,2080,2081,2084,2085,2088],{},"顶点着色器的",[48,2066,2067],{},"输出要求所有的顶点都在裁剪空间内","，这正是我们",[48,2070,2071],{},"刚才使用变换矩阵所做的","。OpenGL然后对",[48,2074,2075],{},"裁剪坐标","执行",[48,2078,2079],{},"透视除法","从而将它们变换到",[48,2082,2083],{},"标准化设备坐标","。OpenGL会使用glViewPort内部的参数来将标准化设备坐标映射到",[48,2086,2087],{},"屏幕坐标","，每个坐标都关联了一个屏幕上的点（在我们的例子中是一个800x600的屏幕）。这个过程称为视口变换。",[10,2090,2091],{},"​\t这一章的主题可能会比较难理解，如果你仍然不确定每个空间的作用的话，你也不必太担心。接下来你会看到我们是怎样运用这些坐标空间的，而且之后也会有足够多的例子。",[20,2093,2095],{"id":2094},"进入3d","进入3D",[10,2097,2098,2099,106],{},"​\t既然我们知道了",[48,2100,2101],{},"如何将3D坐标变换为2D坐标，我们可以开始使用真正的3D物体，而不是枯燥的2D平面了",[10,2103,2104,2105,2108],{},"​\t在开始进行3D绘图时，我们首先创建一个模型矩阵。这个模型矩阵包含了位移、缩放与旋转操作，它们会被应用到所有物体的顶点上，以",[48,2106,2107],{},"变换","它们到全局的世界空间。让我们变换一下我们的平面，将其绕着x轴旋转，使它看起来像放在地上一样。这个模型矩阵看起来是这样的：",[164,2110,2112],{"className":166,"code":2111,"language":168,"meta":169,"style":169},"glm::mat4 model;\nmodel = glm::rotate(model, glm::radians(-55.0f), glm::vec3(1.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f));\n",[171,2113,2114,2119],{"__ignoreMap":169},[93,2115,2116],{"class":175,"line":176},[93,2117,2118],{},"glm::mat4 model;\n",[93,2120,2121],{"class":175,"line":182},[93,2122,2123],{},"model = glm::rotate(model, glm::radians(-55.0f), glm::vec3(1.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f));\n",[10,2125,2126,2127,2130,2131,106],{},"​\t这条语句使用 GLM 库（或类似的数学库）执行了一个变换，其核心作用是将物体的",[48,2128,2129],{},"局部坐标 (Local Space)"," 变换到 ",[48,2132,2133],{},"世界坐标 (World Space)",[10,2135,2136,2137,1844],{},"具体来说，它执行的是一个",[48,2138,2139],{},"旋转操作",[1654,2141,2142,2185,2223],{},[1657,2143,2144,2151,2152,2155,2156,2158,2159],{},[48,2145,2146,2147,2150],{},"目标矩阵 (",[171,2148,2149],{},"model",")",": ",[171,2153,2154],{},"rotate()"," 函数对传入的 ",[171,2157,2149],{}," 矩阵进行修改（或返回一个新的矩阵）。\n",[1799,2160,2161],{},[1657,2162,2163,2166,2167,2169,2170,2176,2177,2180,2181,2184],{},[48,2164,2165],{},"注意："," 在这行代码之前，",[171,2168,2149],{}," 矩阵应该已经被初始化为",[48,2171,2172,2173,2150],{},"单位矩阵 (",[171,2174,2175],{},"mat4(1.0f)","，或者已经包含了之前执行的",[48,2178,2179],{},"位移 (Translate)"," 和",[48,2182,2183],{},"缩放 (Scale)"," 变换。",[1657,2186,2187,2193,2194],{},[48,2188,2189,2190,2150],{},"旋转角度 (",[171,2191,2192],{},"radians(-55.0f)",":\n",[1799,2195,2196,2199,2210],{},[1657,2197,2198],{},"角度是 55.0 度。",[1657,2200,2201,2202,2205,2206,2209],{},"GLM 的 ",[171,2203,2204],{},"rotate"," 函数接受弧度制，所以需要使用 ",[171,2207,2208],{},"glm::radians()"," 函数将 −55 度转换为弧度。",[1657,2211,2212,2218,2219,2222],{},[48,2213,2214,2215,2150],{},"负号 (",[171,2216,2217],{},"-"," 表示",[48,2220,2221],{},"顺时针","旋转。",[1657,2224,2225,2193,2231],{},[48,2226,2227,2228,2150],{},"旋转轴 (",[171,2229,2230],{},"vec3(1.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f)",[1799,2232,2233],{},[1657,2234,2235,2236,2239],{},"旋转将围绕 ",[48,2237,2238],{},"X 轴","进行。",[10,2241,2242,2243,2246],{},"​\t最后我们需要做的是",[48,2244,2245],{},"定义一个投影矩阵。我们希望在场景中使用透视投影","，所以像这样声明一个投影矩阵：",[164,2248,2250],{"className":166,"code":2249,"language":168,"meta":169,"style":169},"glm::mat4 projection;\nprojection = glm::perspective(glm::radians(45.0f), screenWidth \u002F screenHeight, 0.1f, 100.0f);\n",[171,2251,2252,2257],{"__ignoreMap":169},[93,2253,2254],{"class":175,"line":176},[93,2255,2256],{},"glm::mat4 projection;\n",[93,2258,2259],{"class":175,"line":182},[93,2260,2261],{},"projection = glm::perspective(glm::radians(45.0f), screenWidth \u002F screenHeight, 0.1f, 100.0f);\n",[10,2263,2264,2265,1844],{},"​\t既然我们已经创建了变换矩阵，",[48,2266,2267],{},"我们应该将它们传入着色器。首先，让我们在顶点着色器中声明一个uniform变换矩阵然后将它乘以顶点坐标",[164,2269,2271],{"className":166,"code":2270,"language":168,"meta":169,"style":169},"#version 330 core\nlayout (location = 0) in vec3 aPos;\n...\nuniform mat4 model;\nuniform mat4 view;\nuniform mat4 projection;\n\nvoid main()\n{\n \u002F\u002F 注意乘法要从右向左读\n gl_Position = projection * view * model * vec4(aPos, 1.0);\n ...\n}\n",[171,2272,2273,2277,2281,2286,2291,2296,2301,2305,2309,2313,2318,2323,2328],{"__ignoreMap":169},[93,2274,2275],{"class":175,"line":176},[93,2276,222],{},[93,2278,2279],{"class":175,"line":182},[93,2280,227],{},[93,2282,2283],{"class":175,"line":188},[93,2284,2285],{},"...\n",[93,2287,2288],{"class":175,"line":235},[93,2289,2290],{},"uniform mat4 model;\n",[93,2292,2293],{"class":175,"line":242},[93,2294,2295],{},"uniform mat4 view;\n",[93,2297,2298],{"class":175,"line":248},[93,2299,2300],{},"uniform mat4 projection;\n",[93,2302,2303],{"class":175,"line":253},[93,2304,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,2306,2307],{"class":175,"line":259},[93,2308,267],{},[93,2310,2311],{"class":175,"line":264},[93,2312,273],{},[93,2314,2315],{"class":175,"line":270},[93,2316,2317],{}," \u002F\u002F 注意乘法要从右向左读\n",[93,2319,2320],{"class":175,"line":276},[93,2321,2322],{}," gl_Position = projection * view * model * vec4(aPos, 1.0);\n",[93,2324,2325],{"class":175,"line":282},[93,2326,2327],{}," ...\n",[93,2329,2330],{"class":175,"line":288},[93,2331,291],{},[10,2333,2334,2335,2338,2339,2342],{},"​\t我们还应该",[48,2336,2337],{},"将矩阵传入着色器","（这通常在",[48,2340,2341],{},"每次的渲染迭代中进行，因为变换矩阵会经常变动","）：",[164,2344,2346],{"className":166,"code":2345,"language":168,"meta":169,"style":169},"int modelLoc = glGetUniformLocation(ourShader.ID, \"model\");\nglUniformMatrix4fv(modelLoc, 1, GL_FALSE, glm::value_ptr(model));\n... \u002F\u002F 观察矩阵和投影矩阵与之类似\n",[171,2347,2348,2353,2358],{"__ignoreMap":169},[93,2349,2350],{"class":175,"line":176},[93,2351,2352],{},"int modelLoc = glGetUniformLocation(ourShader.ID, \"model\");\n",[93,2354,2355],{"class":175,"line":182},[93,2356,2357],{},"glUniformMatrix4fv(modelLoc, 1, GL_FALSE, glm::value_ptr(model));\n",[93,2359,2360],{"class":175,"line":188},[93,2361,2362],{},"... \u002F\u002F 观察矩阵和投影矩阵与之类似\n",[10,2364,2365],{},"我们的顶点坐标已经使用模型、观察和投影矩阵进行变换了，最终的物体应该会：",[1799,2367,2368,2371,2374],{},[1657,2369,2370],{},"稍微向后倾斜至地板方向。",[1657,2372,2373],{},"离我们有一些距离。",[1657,2375,2376],{},"有透视效果（顶点越远，变得越小）。",[10,2378,2379],{},"让我们检查一下结果是否满足这些要求：",[10,2381,2382],{},[32,2383],{"alt":2384,"src":2385},"coordinate_systems_result",".\u002Fassets\u002Fcoordinate_systems_result.png",[10,2387,2388],{},"我的完整代码：",[164,2390,2392],{"className":166,"code":2391,"language":168,"meta":169,"style":169},"#include \u003Cglad\u002Fglad.h>\n#include \u003CGLFW\u002Fglfw3.h>\n#include \u003Copencv4\u002Fopencv2\u002Fopencv.hpp>\n#include \u003Ciostream>\n#include \u003Ccmath>\n#include \u003Cfilesystem>\n#include \"utils\u002Fshader.h\"\n#include \"utils\u002FglmCompute.h\"\n#include \"utils\u002Flogger.h\"\n\nusing namespace cv;\nusing namespace glm;\n\n\u002F\u002F 窗口大小改变时的回调函数\nvoid framebuffer_size_callback(GLFWwindow* window, int width, int height) {\n glViewport(0, 0, width, height);\n}\n\nstd::string getCurrentWorkingDirectory() {\n namespace fs = std::filesystem;\n try {\n \u002F\u002F current_path() 返回当前工作目录\n return fs::current_path().string();\n } catch (const fs::filesystem_error& e) {\n std::cerr \u003C\u003C \"Filesystem Error: \" \u003C\u003C e.what() \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n return \"\";\n }\n}\n\nint main() {\n\n \u002F\u002F 模型矩阵\n mat4 model = mat4(1.0f);\n model = rotate(model, radians(-55.0f), vec3(1.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f));\n\n \u002F\u002F 视点矩阵\n mat4 view = mat4(1.0f);\n view = translate(view, vec3(0.0f, 0.0f, -3.0f));\n\n \u002F\u002F 投影矩阵\n mat4 projection = perspective(radians(45.0f), (float)800 \u002F (float)600, 0.1f, 100.0f);\n\n auto path = getCurrentWorkingDirectory().append(\"\u002FAssets\u002Fimage.png\");\n auto path2 = getCurrentWorkingDirectory().append(\"\u002FAssets\u002Fimage2.png\");\n cv::Mat image = cv::imread(path);\n cv::Mat image2 = cv::imread(path2);\n cv::flip(image2, image2, 0);\n cv::cvtColor(image, image, cv::COLOR_BGR2RGB);\n cv::cvtColor(image2, image2, cv::COLOR_BGR2RGB);\n\n \u002F\u002F 转换为字节数组\n std::vector\u003Cuchar> imageData;\n std::vector\u003Cuchar> imageData2;\n if (image.empty()) {\n std::cerr \u003C\u003C \"Could not read the image: \" \u003C\u003C path \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n return 1;\n }\n if (image2.empty()) {\n std::cerr \u003C\u003C \"Could not read the image2: \" \u003C\u003C path2 \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n return 1;\n }\n \n std::cout \u003C\u003C \"Image 1 loaded: \" \u003C\u003C image.cols \u003C\u003C \"x\" \u003C\u003C image.rows \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n std::cout \u003C\u003C \"Image 2 loaded: \" \u003C\u003C image2.cols \u003C\u003C \"x\" \u003C\u003C image2.rows \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n\n cv::imencode(\".png\", image, imageData);\n cv::imencode(\".png\", image2, imageData2);\n\n\n \n \u002F\u002F 初始化GLFW\n glfwInit();\n glfwWindowHint(GLFW_CONTEXT_VERSION_MAJOR, 3);\n glfwWindowHint(GLFW_CONTEXT_VERSION_MINOR, 3);\n glfwWindowHint(GLFW_OPENGL_PROFILE, GLFW_OPENGL_CORE_PROFILE);\n\n \u002F\u002F 创建窗口\n GLFWwindow* window = glfwCreateWindow(800, 600, \"OpenGL Window\", NULL, NULL);\n if (window == NULL) {\n std::cout \u003C\u003C \"Failed to create GLFW window\" \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n glfwTerminate();\n return -1;\n }\n \n glfwMakeContextCurrent(window);\n glfwSetFramebufferSizeCallback(window, framebuffer_size_callback);\n\n \u002F\u002F 初始化GLAD\n if (!gladLoadGLLoader((GLADloadproc)glfwGetProcAddress)) {\n std::cout \u003C\u003C \"Failed to initialize GLAD\" \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n return -1;\n }\n\n float vertices[] = {\n \u002F\u002F ---- 位置 ---- ---- 颜色 ---- - 纹理坐标 -\n 0.5f, 0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f, 1.0f, 1.0f, \u002F\u002F 右上\n 0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f, \u002F\u002F 右下\n -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f, \u002F\u002F 左下\n -0.5f, 0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f, 1.0f \u002F\u002F 左上\n };\n \n unsigned int indices[] = {\n 0, 1, 3, \u002F\u002F 第一个三角形\n 1, 2, 3 \u002F\u002F 第二个三角形\n };\n\n \u002F\u002F 纹理\n unsigned int texture;\n unsigned int texture2;\n glGenTextures(1, &texture); \u002F\u002F 生成纹理\n glGenTextures(1, &texture2); \u002F\u002F 生成纹理\n \n \u002F\u002F 配置第一个纹理\n glActiveTexture(GL_TEXTURE0);\n glBindTexture(GL_TEXTURE_2D, texture); \u002F\u002F 绑定纹理\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_S, GL_REPEAT); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理环绕方式\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_T, GL_REPEAT); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理环绕方式\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MIN_FILTER, GL_LINEAR); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理过滤方式\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MAG_FILTER, GL_LINEAR); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理过滤方式\n glTexImage2D(GL_TEXTURE_2D, 0, GL_RGB, image.cols, image.rows, 0, GL_RGB, GL_UNSIGNED_BYTE, image.data); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理数据\n glGenerateMipmap(GL_TEXTURE_2D); \u002F\u002F 生成mipmap\n\n \u002F\u002F 配置第二个纹理\n glActiveTexture(GL_TEXTURE1);\n glBindTexture(GL_TEXTURE_2D, texture2); \u002F\u002F 绑定纹理\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_S, GL_REPEAT); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理环绕方式\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_T, GL_REPEAT); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理环绕方式 \n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MIN_FILTER, GL_LINEAR); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理过滤方式\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MAG_FILTER, GL_LINEAR); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理过滤方式\n glTexImage2D(GL_TEXTURE_2D, 0, GL_RGB, image2.cols, image2.rows, 0, GL_RGB, GL_UNSIGNED_BYTE, image2.data); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理数据\n glGenerateMipmap(GL_TEXTURE_2D); \u002F\u002F 生成mipmap\n\n\n \u002F\u002F 创建VAO\n unsigned int VAO;\n glGenVertexArrays(1, &VAO);\n glBindVertexArray(VAO); \u002F\u002F 绑定VAO\n\n \u002F\u002F 创建VBO\n unsigned int VBO;\n glGenBuffers(1, &VBO);\n glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, VBO); \u002F\u002F 绑定VBO\n glBufferData(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, sizeof(vertices), vertices, GL_STATIC_DRAW);\n\n \u002F\u002F 创建EBO\n unsigned int EBO;\n glGenBuffers(1, &EBO);\n glBindBuffer(GL_ELEMENT_ARRAY_BUFFER, EBO); \u002F\u002F 绑定EBO\n glBufferData(GL_ELEMENT_ARRAY_BUFFER, sizeof(indices), indices, GL_STATIC_DRAW);\n\n int nrAttributes;\n glGetIntegerv(GL_MAX_VERTEX_ATTRIBS, &nrAttributes);\n std::cout \u003C\u003C \"Maximum nr of vertex attributes supported: \" \u003C\u003C nrAttributes \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n\n \u002F\u002F 位置属性\n glVertexAttribPointer(0, 3, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 8 * sizeof(float), (void*)0);\n glEnableVertexAttribArray(0); \u002F\u002F 启用顶点属性\n\n \u002F\u002F 颜色属性\n glVertexAttribPointer(1, 3, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 8 * sizeof(float), (void*)(3 * sizeof(float)));\n glEnableVertexAttribArray(1);\n \n \u002F\u002F 纹理属性\n glVertexAttribPointer(2, 2, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 8 * sizeof(float), (void*)(6 * sizeof(float)));\n glEnableVertexAttribArray(2);\n\n \u002F\u002F 构建并编译着色器程序\n Shader ourShader(\"shader\u002Fcustom.vert\", \"shader\u002Ffragment.vert\");\n\n \u002F\u002F 渲染循环\n while (!glfwWindowShouldClose(window)) {\n \u002F\u002F 处理输入\n glfwPollEvents();\n \n \u002F\u002F 渲染指令\n glClearColor(0.2f, 0.3f, 0.3f, 1.0f);\n glClear(GL_COLOR_BUFFER_BIT);\n \n \u002F\u002F 使用着色器程序\n ourShader.use();\n\n int modelLoc = glGetUniformLocation(ourShader.ID, \"model\");\n glUniformMatrix4fv(modelLoc, 1, GL_FALSE, glm::value_ptr(model));\n\n int viewLoc = glGetUniformLocation(ourShader.ID, \"view\");\n glUniformMatrix4fv(viewLoc, 1, GL_FALSE, glm::value_ptr(view));\n\n int projectionLoc = glGetUniformLocation(ourShader.ID, \"projection\");\n glUniformMatrix4fv(projectionLoc, 1, GL_FALSE, glm::value_ptr(projection));\n \n ourShader.setInt(\"ourTexture\", 0);\n ourShader.setInt(\"ourTexture2\", 1);\n \n glBindVertexArray(VAO);\n \n \u002F\u002F 绘制矩形（使用EBO）\n glDrawElements(GL_TRIANGLES, 6, GL_UNSIGNED_INT, 0);\n \n \u002F\u002F 交换缓冲区和检查IO事件\n glfwSwapBuffers(window);\n }\n\n \u002F\u002F 清理资源\n glDeleteVertexArrays(1, &VAO);\n glDeleteBuffers(1, &VBO);\n glDeleteBuffers(1, &EBO);\n glDeleteTextures(1, &texture);\n glDeleteTextures(1, &texture2);\n glfwTerminate();\n return 0;\n}\n",[171,2393,2394,2398,2402,2406,2410,2414,2418,2422,2426,2430,2434,2438,2442,2446,2450,2454,2458,2462,2466,2470,2474,2478,2482,2486,2490,2494,2498,2502,2506,2510,2514,2518,2523,2528,2533,2537,2542,2547,2552,2556,2561,2566,2570,2574,2578,2582,2586,2590,2594,2598,2602,2606,2610,2614,2618,2622,2626,2630,2634,2638,2642,2646,2650,2654,2658,2662,2666,2670,2674,2678,2682,2686,2690,2694,2698,2702,2706,2710,2714,2718,2722,2726,2730,2734,2738,2742,2746,2750,2754,2758,2762,2766,2770,2774,2778,2782,2786,2790,2794,2798,2802,2806,2810,2814,2818,2822,2826,2830,2834,2838,2842,2846,2850,2854,2858,2862,2866,2870,2874,2878,2882,2886,2890,2894,2898,2902,2906,2910,2914,2918,2922,2926,2930,2934,2938,2942,2946,2950,2954,2958,2962,2966,2970,2974,2978,2982,2986,2990,2994,2998,3002,3006,3010,3014,3018,3022,3026,3030,3034,3038,3042,3046,3050,3054,3058,3062,3066,3070,3074,3078,3082,3086,3090,3094,3098,3102,3106,3110,3114,3118,3122,3126,3131,3136,3140,3145,3150,3154,3159,3164,3168,3172,3176,3180,3184,3188,3192,3196,3200,3204,3208,3212,3216,3220,3224,3228,3232,3236,3240,3244,3248],{"__ignoreMap":169},[93,2395,2396],{"class":175,"line":176},[93,2397,378],{},[93,2399,2400],{"class":175,"line":182},[93,2401,383],{},[93,2403,2404],{"class":175,"line":188},[93,2405,388],{},[93,2407,2408],{"class":175,"line":235},[93,2409,393],{},[93,2411,2412],{"class":175,"line":242},[93,2413,398],{},[93,2415,2416],{"class":175,"line":248},[93,2417,403],{},[93,2419,2420],{"class":175,"line":253},[93,2421,408],{},[93,2423,2424],{"class":175,"line":259},[93,2425,413],{},[93,2427,2428],{"class":175,"line":264},[93,2429,418],{},[93,2431,2432],{"class":175,"line":270},[93,2433,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,2435,2436],{"class":175,"line":276},[93,2437,427],{},[93,2439,2440],{"class":175,"line":282},[93,2441,432],{},[93,2443,2444],{"class":175,"line":288},[93,2445,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,2447,2448],{"class":175,"line":439},[93,2449,442],{},[93,2451,2452],{"class":175,"line":445},[93,2453,448],{},[93,2455,2456],{"class":175,"line":451},[93,2457,454],{},[93,2459,2460],{"class":175,"line":457},[93,2461,291],{},[93,2463,2464],{"class":175,"line":462},[93,2465,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,2467,2468],{"class":175,"line":467},[93,2469,470],{},[93,2471,2472],{"class":175,"line":473},[93,2473,476],{},[93,2475,2476],{"class":175,"line":479},[93,2477,482],{},[93,2479,2480],{"class":175,"line":485},[93,2481,488],{},[93,2483,2484],{"class":175,"line":491},[93,2485,494],{},[93,2487,2488],{"class":175,"line":497},[93,2489,500],{},[93,2491,2492],{"class":175,"line":503},[93,2493,506],{},[93,2495,2496],{"class":175,"line":509},[93,2497,512],{},[93,2499,2500],{"class":175,"line":515},[93,2501,518],{},[93,2503,2504],{"class":175,"line":521},[93,2505,291],{},[93,2507,2508],{"class":175,"line":526},[93,2509,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,2511,2512],{"class":175,"line":531},[93,2513,534],{},[93,2515,2516],{"class":175,"line":537},[93,2517,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,2519,2520],{"class":175,"line":543},[93,2521,2522],{}," \u002F\u002F 模型矩阵\n",[93,2524,2525],{"class":175,"line":549},[93,2526,2527],{}," mat4 model = mat4(1.0f);\n",[93,2529,2530],{"class":175,"line":555},[93,2531,2532],{}," model = rotate(model, radians(-55.0f), vec3(1.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f));\n",[93,2534,2535],{"class":175,"line":560},[93,2536,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,2538,2539],{"class":175,"line":566},[93,2540,2541],{}," \u002F\u002F 视点矩阵\n",[93,2543,2544],{"class":175,"line":572},[93,2545,2546],{}," mat4 view = mat4(1.0f);\n",[93,2548,2549],{"class":175,"line":578},[93,2550,2551],{}," view = translate(view, vec3(0.0f, 0.0f, -3.0f));\n",[93,2553,2554],{"class":175,"line":584},[93,2555,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,2557,2558],{"class":175,"line":590},[93,2559,2560],{}," \u002F\u002F 投影矩阵\n",[93,2562,2563],{"class":175,"line":596},[93,2564,2565],{}," mat4 projection = perspective(radians(45.0f), (float)800 \u002F (float)600, 0.1f, 100.0f);\n",[93,2567,2568],{"class":175,"line":602},[93,2569,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,2571,2572],{"class":175,"line":607},[93,2573,563],{},[93,2575,2576],{"class":175,"line":613},[93,2577,569],{},[93,2579,2580],{"class":175,"line":619},[93,2581,575],{},[93,2583,2584],{"class":175,"line":625},[93,2585,581],{},[93,2587,2588],{"class":175,"line":631},[93,2589,587],{},[93,2591,2592],{"class":175,"line":637},[93,2593,593],{},[93,2595,2596],{"class":175,"line":643},[93,2597,599],{},[93,2599,2600],{"class":175,"line":648},[93,2601,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,2603,2604],{"class":175,"line":654},[93,2605,610],{},[93,2607,2608],{"class":175,"line":660},[93,2609,616],{},[93,2611,2612],{"class":175,"line":665},[93,2613,622],{},[93,2615,2616],{"class":175,"line":670},[93,2617,628],{},[93,2619,2620],{"class":175,"line":676},[93,2621,634],{},[93,2623,2624],{"class":175,"line":682},[93,2625,640],{},[93,2627,2628],{"class":175,"line":688},[93,2629,518],{},[93,2631,2632],{"class":175,"line":693},[93,2633,651],{},[93,2635,2636],{"class":175,"line":699},[93,2637,657],{},[93,2639,2640],{"class":175,"line":705},[93,2641,640],{},[93,2643,2644],{"class":175,"line":710},[93,2645,518],{},[93,2647,2648],{"class":175,"line":715},[93,2649,673],{},[93,2651,2652],{"class":175,"line":720},[93,2653,679],{},[93,2655,2656],{"class":175,"line":726},[93,2657,685],{},[93,2659,2660],{"class":175,"line":732},[93,2661,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,2663,2664],{"class":175,"line":738},[93,2665,696],{},[93,2667,2668],{"class":175,"line":744},[93,2669,702],{},[93,2671,2672],{"class":175,"line":750},[93,2673,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,2675,2676],{"class":175,"line":755},[93,2677,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,2679,2680],{"class":175,"line":761},[93,2681,673],{},[93,2683,2684],{"class":175,"line":767},[93,2685,723],{},[93,2687,2688],{"class":175,"line":773},[93,2689,729],{},[93,2691,2692],{"class":175,"line":779},[93,2693,735],{},[93,2695,2696],{"class":175,"line":785},[93,2697,741],{},[93,2699,2700],{"class":175,"line":791},[93,2701,747],{},[93,2703,2704],{"class":175,"line":796},[93,2705,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,2707,2708],{"class":175,"line":801},[93,2709,758],{},[93,2711,2712],{"class":175,"line":807},[93,2713,764],{},[93,2715,2716],{"class":175,"line":813},[93,2717,770],{},[93,2719,2720],{"class":175,"line":818},[93,2721,776],{},[93,2723,2724],{"class":175,"line":824},[93,2725,782],{},[93,2727,2728],{"class":175,"line":830},[93,2729,788],{},[93,2731,2732],{"class":175,"line":836},[93,2733,518],{},[93,2735,2736],{"class":175,"line":841},[93,2737,673],{},[93,2739,2740],{"class":175,"line":846},[93,2741,804],{},[93,2743,2744],{"class":175,"line":851},[93,2745,810],{},[93,2747,2748],{"class":175,"line":857},[93,2749,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,2751,2752],{"class":175,"line":863},[93,2753,821],{},[93,2755,2756],{"class":175,"line":869},[93,2757,827],{},[93,2759,2760],{"class":175,"line":875},[93,2761,833],{},[93,2763,2764],{"class":175,"line":881},[93,2765,788],{},[93,2767,2768],{"class":175,"line":887},[93,2769,518],{},[93,2771,2772],{"class":175,"line":893},[93,2773,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,2775,2776],{"class":175,"line":898},[93,2777,854],{},[93,2779,2780],{"class":175,"line":904},[93,2781,860],{},[93,2783,2784],{"class":175,"line":910},[93,2785,866],{},[93,2787,2788],{"class":175,"line":916},[93,2789,872],{},[93,2791,2792],{"class":175,"line":921},[93,2793,878],{},[93,2795,2796],{"class":175,"line":926},[93,2797,884],{},[93,2799,2800],{"class":175,"line":932},[93,2801,890],{},[93,2803,2804],{"class":175,"line":938},[93,2805,673],{},[93,2807,2808],{"class":175,"line":944},[93,2809,901],{},[93,2811,2812],{"class":175,"line":950},[93,2813,907],{},[93,2815,2816],{"class":175,"line":956},[93,2817,913],{},[93,2819,2820],{"class":175,"line":961},[93,2821,890],{},[93,2823,2824],{"class":175,"line":967},[93,2825,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,2827,2828],{"class":175,"line":973},[93,2829,929],{},[93,2831,2832],{"class":175,"line":979},[93,2833,935],{},[93,2835,2836],{"class":175,"line":985},[93,2837,941],{},[93,2839,2840],{"class":175,"line":991},[93,2841,947],{},[93,2843,2844],{"class":175,"line":997},[93,2845,953],{},[93,2847,2848],{"class":175,"line":1003},[93,2849,673],{},[93,2851,2852],{"class":175,"line":1009},[93,2853,964],{},[93,2855,2856],{"class":175,"line":1015},[93,2857,970],{},[93,2859,2860],{"class":175,"line":1020},[93,2861,976],{},[93,2863,2864],{"class":175,"line":1026},[93,2865,982],{},[93,2867,2868],{"class":175,"line":1032},[93,2869,988],{},[93,2871,2872],{"class":175,"line":1038},[93,2873,994],{},[93,2875,2876],{"class":175,"line":1043},[93,2877,1000],{},[93,2879,2880],{"class":175,"line":1049},[93,2881,1006],{},[93,2883,2884],{"class":175,"line":1054},[93,2885,1012],{},[93,2887,2888],{"class":175,"line":1059},[93,2889,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,2891,2892],{"class":175,"line":1065},[93,2893,1023],{},[93,2895,2896],{"class":175,"line":107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int modelLoc = glGetUniformLocation(ourShader.ID, \"model\");\n",[93,3132,3133],{"class":175,"line":1409},[93,3134,3135],{}," glUniformMatrix4fv(modelLoc, 1, GL_FALSE, glm::value_ptr(model));\n",[93,3137,3138],{"class":175,"line":1415},[93,3139,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,3141,3142],{"class":175,"line":1421},[93,3143,3144],{}," int viewLoc = glGetUniformLocation(ourShader.ID, \"view\");\n",[93,3146,3147],{"class":175,"line":1426},[93,3148,3149],{}," glUniformMatrix4fv(viewLoc, 1, GL_FALSE, glm::value_ptr(view));\n",[93,3151,3152],{"class":175,"line":1432},[93,3153,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,3155,3156],{"class":175,"line":1438},[93,3157,3158],{}," int projectionLoc = glGetUniformLocation(ourShader.ID, \"projection\");\n",[93,3160,3161],{"class":175,"line":1443},[93,3162,3163],{}," glUniformMatrix4fv(projectionLoc, 1, GL_FALSE, glm::value_ptr(projection));\n",[93,3165,3166],{"class":175,"line":1448},[93,3167,1315],{},[93,3169,3170],{"class":175,"line":1454},[93,3171,1384],{},[93,3173,3174],{"class":175,"line":1460},[93,3175,1390],{},[93,3177,3178],{"class":175,"line":1466},[93,3179,1315],{},[93,3181,3182],{"class":175,"line":1472},[93,3183,1401],{},[93,3185,3186],{"class":175,"line":1478},[93,3187,1315],{},[93,3189,3190],{"class":175,"line":1484},[93,3191,1412],{},[93,3193,3194],{"class":175,"line":1490},[93,3195,1418],{},[93,3197,3198],{"class":175,"line":1496},[93,3199,1315],{},[93,3201,3202],{"class":175,"line":1501},[93,3203,1429],{},[93,3205,3206],{"class":175,"line":1506},[93,3207,1435],{},[93,3209,3210],{"class":175,"line":1511},[93,3211,518],{},[93,3213,3214],{"class":175,"line":1517},[93,3215,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,3217,3218],{"class":175,"line":1523},[93,3219,1451],{},[93,3221,3222],{"class":175,"line":1529},[93,3223,1457],{},[93,3225,3226],{"class":175,"line":1535},[93,3227,1463],{},[93,3229,3230],{"class":175,"line":1541},[93,3231,1469],{},[93,3233,3234],{"class":175,"line":1546},[93,3235,1475],{},[93,3237,3238],{"class":175,"line":1551},[93,3239,1481],{},[93,3241,3242],{"class":175,"line":1557},[93,3243,1487],{},[93,3245,3246],{"class":175,"line":1562},[93,3247,1493],{},[93,3249,3250],{"class":175,"line":1567},[93,3251,291],{},[10,3253,3254,3255,3257,3258,3260],{},"这三个步骤定义了顶点从 ",[48,3256,1697],{}," 到 ",[48,3259,1748],{}," 的完整变换流程。",[3262,3263],"hr",{},[64,3265,3267],{"id":3266},"_3d-变换三部曲mvp-矩阵","3D 变换三部曲：MVP 矩阵",[10,3269,3270,3271,3274],{},"这三个矩阵通常组合成一个 ",[48,3272,3273],{},"MVP 矩阵","（Model-View-Projection Matrix），一起发送到着色器中，对所有顶点进行一次性变换。",[10,3276,3277],{},"MVP=P×V×M",[1792,3279,3281],{"id":3280},"第一步模型矩阵-m","第一步：模型矩阵 (M)",[10,3283,3284],{},[32,3285],{"alt":3286,"src":3287},"image-20251010222649538",".\u002Fassets\u002Fimage-20251010222649538.png",[3289,3290,3291,3307],"table",{},[3292,3293,3294],"thead",{},[3295,3296,3297,3301,3304],"tr",{},[3298,3299,3300],"th",{},"作用",[3298,3302,3303],{},"详细解释",[3298,3305,3306],{},"目的空间",[3308,3309,3310,3328,3347,3362],"tbody",{},[3295,3311,3312,3318,3324],{},[3313,3314,3315],"td",{},[48,3316,3317],{},"放置物体",[3313,3319,3320,3321,3323],{},"将物体从它在建模软件中的初始坐标（",[48,3322,1697],{},"）移动、旋转和缩放到它在 3D 世界中的正确位置。",[3313,3325,3326],{},[48,3327,1714],{},[3295,3329,3330,3335,3345],{},[3313,3331,3332],{},[48,3333,3334],{},"操作",[3313,3336,3337,3339,3340,3339,3343,106],{},[48,3338,2179],{},"、",[48,3341,3342],{},"旋转 (Rotate)",[48,3344,2183],{},[3313,3346],{},[3295,3348,3349,3354,3360],{},[3313,3350,3351],{},[48,3352,3353],{},"意义",[3313,3355,3356,3357],{},"告诉 GPU ",[48,3358,3359],{},"“这个物体应该在哪里，应该以什么姿态存在。”",[3313,3361],{},[3295,3363,3364,3369,3372],{},[3313,3365,3366],{},[48,3367,3368],{},"结果",[3313,3370,3371],{},"顶点的坐标现在是相对于世界的全局原点 (0,0,0) 来定义的。",[3313,3373],{},[10,3375,3376],{},"第二步：观察矩阵 (V)",[10,3378,3379],{},[32,3380],{"alt":3381,"src":3382},"image-20251010222700794",".\u002Fassets\u002Fimage-20251010222700794.png",[10,3384,3385,3386,3389,3390,3393,3394,3334,3396,3410,3411,106,3414,3416],{},"​\t作用详细解释目的空间",[48,3387,3388],{},"模拟摄像机","定义用户或",[48,3391,3392],{},"摄像机的位置和朝向","。 实际上，它是对整个世界坐标系进行反向变换。",[48,3395,1734],{},[48,3397,3398,3399,3409],{},"通常使用 ",[48,3400,3401,3404,3405,3408],{},[171,3402,3403],{},"glm::lookAt()"," 函数创建，结合了位移和旋转。",[48,3406,3407],{},"核心原则","整个世界朝着摄像机移动。例如，如果","摄像机向 +Z 方向移动 5 个单位","，则观察矩阵",[48,3412,3413],{},"会施加 −Z 方向的 5 个单位位移给所有物体",[48,3415,3368],{},"顶点的坐标现在是相对于摄像机原点 (0,0,0) 来定义的。",[10,3418,3419],{},"第三步：投影矩阵 (P)",[10,3421,3422],{},[32,3423],{"alt":3424,"src":3425},"image-20251010222753876",".\u002Fassets\u002Fimage-20251010222753876.png",[10,3427,3385,3428,3431,3432,3435,3436,3438,3439,3441,3442,3445,3446,3448,3449,3452],{},[48,3429,3430],{},"定义可见区域","定义一个被称为",[48,3433,3434],{},"平截头体 (Frustum)"," 的 3D 盒子（或锥体），只有位于这个体内的物体才会被渲染。",[48,3437,1748],{},"类型透视投影**（近大远小，有深度感）或 ",[48,3440,1794],{},"（无透视，等比例）。**核心功能为透视除法做准备。它根据深度 (Z 轴) 修改顶点的 ",[48,3443,3444],{},"W 分量","，这是实现透视效果的关键。",[48,3447,3368],{},"顶点的坐标现在是 4D 的裁剪坐标 (x′,y′,z′,w′)，处于 ",[93,3450,3451],{},"−w′,w′"," 的范围内。",[64,3454,3456],{"id":3455},"最后的两步从-3d-到-2d-屏幕","最后的两步：从 3D 到 2D 屏幕",[10,3458,3459,3460,1844],{},"在 P×V×M 运算完成之后，",[48,3461,3462],{},"GPU 会自动执行最后两个步骤，将 3D 坐标转换为屏幕像素",[1792,3464,3466],{"id":3465},"_1-透视除法-perspective-division","1. 透视除法 (Perspective Division)",[1799,3468,3469,3479,3485],{},[1657,3470,3471,3474,3475,3478],{},[48,3472,3473],{},"作用："," 这是",[48,3476,3477],{},"实现“透视”效果","的数学步骤。",[1657,3480,3481,3484],{},[48,3482,3483],{},"实现："," 自动将裁剪坐标的 x,y,z 分量分别除以其 w 分量。",[1657,3486,3487,3490,3491,3494,3495,3452],{},[48,3488,3489],{},"结果："," 坐标被转换为 ",[48,3492,3493],{},"标准化设备坐标 (NDC)","。NDC 是一个统一的立方体空间，所有可见坐标都位于 ",[93,3496,3497],{},"−1.0,1.0",[10,3499,3500],{},[32,3501],{"alt":3502,"src":3503},"image-20251010223139983",".\u002Fassets\u002Fimage-20251010223139983.png",[1792,3505,3507],{"id":3506},"_2-视口变换-viewport-transform","2. 视口变换 (Viewport Transform)",[1799,3509,3510,3518],{},[1657,3511,3512,3514,3515,3517],{},[48,3513,3473],{}," 将 ",[93,3516,3497],{}," 的 NDC 坐标映射到您定义的屏幕像素范围（例如 0 到 800）。",[1657,3519,3520,3522,3523,3525],{},[48,3521,3489],{}," 顶点获得最终的",[48,3524,2087],{},"，等待光栅化器将其转换为片元（像素）。",[64,3527,3529],{"id":3528},"更加-3d","更加 3D",[10,3531,3532,3533,3536,3537,3542],{},"​\t到目前为止，**我们一直都在使用一个2D平面，而且甚至是在3D空间里！**所以，**让我们大胆地拓展我们的2D平面为一个3D立方体。**要想渲染一个立方体，",[48,3534,3535],{},"我们一共需要36个顶点（6个面 x 每个面有2个三角形组成 x 每个三角形有3个顶点）","，这36个顶点的位置你可以从",[100,3538,3541],{"href":3539,"rel":3540},"https:\u002F\u002Flearnopengl.com\u002Fcode_viewer.php?code=getting-started\u002Fcube_vertices",[104],"这里","获取。",[10,3544,3545],{},"为了有趣一点，我们将让立方体随着时间旋转：",[164,3547,3549],{"className":166,"code":3548,"language":168,"meta":169,"style":169},"model = glm::rotate(model, (float)glfwGetTime() * glm::radians(50.0f), glm::vec3(0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f));\n",[171,3550,3551],{"__ignoreMap":169},[93,3552,3553],{"class":175,"line":176},[93,3554,3548],{},[10,3556,3557],{},"然后我们使用glDrawArrays来绘制立方体，但这一次总共有36个顶点。",[164,3559,3561],{"className":166,"code":3560,"language":168,"meta":169,"style":169},"glDrawArrays(GL_TRIANGLES, 0, 36);\n",[171,3562,3563],{"__ignoreMap":169},[93,3564,3565],{"class":175,"line":176},[93,3566,3560],{},[10,3568,368],{},[164,3570,3572],{"className":166,"code":3571,"language":168,"meta":169,"style":169},"#include \u003Cglad\u002Fglad.h>\n#include \u003CGLFW\u002Fglfw3.h>\n#include \u003Copencv4\u002Fopencv2\u002Fopencv.hpp>\n#include \u003Ciostream>\n#include \u003Ccmath>\n#include \u003Cfilesystem>\n#include \"utils\u002Fshader.h\"\n#include \"utils\u002FglmCompute.h\"\n#include \"utils\u002Flogger.h\"\n\nusing namespace cv;\nusing namespace glm;\n\n\u002F\u002F 窗口大小改变时的回调函数\nvoid framebuffer_size_callback(GLFWwindow* window, int width, int height) {\n glViewport(0, 0, width, height);\n}\n\nstd::string getCurrentWorkingDirectory() {\n namespace fs = std::filesystem;\n try {\n \u002F\u002F current_path() 返回当前工作目录\n return fs::current_path().string();\n } catch (const fs::filesystem_error& e) {\n std::cerr \u003C\u003C \"Filesystem Error: \" \u003C\u003C e.what() \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n return \"\";\n }\n}\n\nint main() {\n\n \u002F\u002F 模型矩阵\n mat4 model = mat4(1.0f);\n model = rotate(model, radians(-55.0f), vec3(1.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f));\n\n \u002F\u002F 视点矩阵\n mat4 view = mat4(1.0f);\n view = translate(view, vec3(0.0f, 0.0f, -3.0f));\n\n \u002F\u002F 投影矩阵\n mat4 projection = perspective(radians(45.0f), (float)800 \u002F (float)600, 0.1f, 100.0f);\n\n auto path = getCurrentWorkingDirectory().append(\"\u002FAssets\u002Fimage.png\");\n auto path2 = getCurrentWorkingDirectory().append(\"\u002FAssets\u002Fimage2.png\");\n cv::Mat image = cv::imread(path);\n cv::Mat image2 = cv::imread(path2);\n cv::flip(image2, image2, 0);\n cv::cvtColor(image, image, cv::COLOR_BGR2RGB);\n cv::cvtColor(image2, image2, cv::COLOR_BGR2RGB);\n\n \u002F\u002F 转换为字节数组\n std::vector\u003Cuchar> imageData;\n std::vector\u003Cuchar> imageData2;\n if (image.empty()) {\n std::cerr \u003C\u003C \"Could not read the image: \" \u003C\u003C path \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n return 1;\n }\n if (image2.empty()) {\n std::cerr \u003C\u003C \"Could not read the image2: \" \u003C\u003C path2 \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n return 1;\n }\n \n std::cout \u003C\u003C \"Image 1 loaded: \" \u003C\u003C image.cols \u003C\u003C \"x\" \u003C\u003C image.rows \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n std::cout \u003C\u003C \"Image 2 loaded: \" \u003C\u003C image2.cols \u003C\u003C \"x\" \u003C\u003C image2.rows \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n\n cv::imencode(\".png\", image, imageData);\n cv::imencode(\".png\", image2, imageData2);\n\n\n \n \u002F\u002F 初始化GLFW\n glfwInit();\n glfwWindowHint(GLFW_CONTEXT_VERSION_MAJOR, 3);\n glfwWindowHint(GLFW_CONTEXT_VERSION_MINOR, 3);\n glfwWindowHint(GLFW_OPENGL_PROFILE, GLFW_OPENGL_CORE_PROFILE);\n\n \u002F\u002F 创建窗口\n GLFWwindow* window = glfwCreateWindow(800, 600, \"OpenGL Window\", NULL, NULL);\n if (window == NULL) {\n std::cout \u003C\u003C \"Failed to create GLFW window\" \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n glfwTerminate();\n return -1;\n }\n \n glfwMakeContextCurrent(window);\n glfwSetFramebufferSizeCallback(window, framebuffer_size_callback);\n\n \u002F\u002F 初始化GLAD\n if (!gladLoadGLLoader((GLADloadproc)glfwGetProcAddress)) {\n std::cout \u003C\u003C \"Failed to initialize GLAD\" \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n return -1;\n }\n\n \u002F\u002F 启用深度测试\n glEnable(GL_DEPTH_TEST);\n\n float vertices[] = {\n \u002F\u002F 位置(3) + 纹理坐标(2)\n -0.5f, -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f,\n 0.5f, -0.5f, -0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f,\n 0.5f, 0.5f, -0.5f, 1.0f, 1.0f,\n 0.5f, 0.5f, -0.5f, 1.0f, 1.0f,\n -0.5f, 0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f,\n -0.5f, -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f,\n\n -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f,\n 0.5f, -0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f,\n 0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 1.0f,\n 0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 1.0f,\n -0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f,\n -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f,\n\n -0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f,\n -0.5f, 0.5f, -0.5f, 1.0f, 1.0f,\n -0.5f, -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f,\n -0.5f, -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f,\n -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f,\n -0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f,\n\n 0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f,\n 0.5f, 0.5f, -0.5f, 1.0f, 1.0f,\n 0.5f, -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f,\n 0.5f, -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f,\n 0.5f, -0.5f, 0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f,\n 0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f,\n\n -0.5f, -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f,\n 0.5f, -0.5f, -0.5f, 1.0f, 1.0f,\n 0.5f, -0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f,\n 0.5f, -0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f,\n -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f,\n -0.5f, -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f,\n\n -0.5f, 0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f,\n 0.5f, 0.5f, -0.5f, 1.0f, 1.0f,\n 0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f,\n 0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f,\n -0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f,\n -0.5f, 0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f\n};\n \n \u002F\u002F indices数组未使用，已删除\n\n \u002F\u002F 纹理\n unsigned int texture;\n unsigned int texture2;\n glGenTextures(1, &texture); \u002F\u002F 生成纹理\n glGenTextures(1, &texture2); \u002F\u002F 生成纹理\n \n \u002F\u002F 配置第一个纹理\n glActiveTexture(GL_TEXTURE0);\n glBindTexture(GL_TEXTURE_2D, texture); \u002F\u002F 绑定纹理\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_S, GL_REPEAT); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理环绕方式\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_T, GL_REPEAT); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理环绕方式\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MIN_FILTER, GL_LINEAR); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理过滤方式\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MAG_FILTER, GL_LINEAR); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理过滤方式\n glTexImage2D(GL_TEXTURE_2D, 0, GL_RGB, image.cols, image.rows, 0, GL_RGB, GL_UNSIGNED_BYTE, image.data); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理数据\n glGenerateMipmap(GL_TEXTURE_2D); \u002F\u002F 生成mipmap\n\n \u002F\u002F 配置第二个纹理\n glActiveTexture(GL_TEXTURE1);\n glBindTexture(GL_TEXTURE_2D, texture2); \u002F\u002F 绑定纹理\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_S, GL_REPEAT); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理环绕方式\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_T, GL_REPEAT); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理环绕方式 \n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MIN_FILTER, GL_LINEAR); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理过滤方式\n glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MAG_FILTER, GL_LINEAR); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理过滤方式\n glTexImage2D(GL_TEXTURE_2D, 0, GL_RGB, image2.cols, image2.rows, 0, GL_RGB, GL_UNSIGNED_BYTE, image2.data); \u002F\u002F 设置纹理数据\n glGenerateMipmap(GL_TEXTURE_2D); \u002F\u002F 生成mipmap\n\n\n \u002F\u002F 创建VAO\n unsigned int VAO;\n glGenVertexArrays(1, &VAO);\n glBindVertexArray(VAO); \u002F\u002F 绑定VAO\n\n \u002F\u002F 创建VBO\n unsigned int VBO;\n glGenBuffers(1, &VBO);\n glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, VBO); \u002F\u002F 绑定VBO\n glBufferData(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, sizeof(vertices), vertices, GL_STATIC_DRAW);\n\n int nrAttributes;\n glGetIntegerv(GL_MAX_VERTEX_ATTRIBS, &nrAttributes);\n std::cout \u003C\u003C \"Maximum nr of vertex attributes supported: \" \u003C\u003C nrAttributes \u003C\u003C std::endl;\n\n \u002F\u002F 位置属性\n glVertexAttribPointer(0, 3, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 5 * sizeof(float), (void*)0);\n glEnableVertexAttribArray(0); \u002F\u002F 启用顶点属性\n \n \u002F\u002F 纹理属性\n glVertexAttribPointer(2, 2, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 5 * sizeof(float), (void*)(3 * sizeof(float)));\n glEnableVertexAttribArray(2);\n\n \u002F\u002F 构建并编译着色器程序\n Shader ourShader(\"shader\u002Fcustom.vert\", \"shader\u002Ffragment.vert\");\n\n \u002F\u002F 渲染循环\n while (!glfwWindowShouldClose(window)) {\n \u002F\u002F 处理输入\n glfwPollEvents();\n \n \u002F\u002F 渲染指令\n glClearColor(0.2f, 0.3f, 0.3f, 1.0f);\n glClear(GL_COLOR_BUFFER_BIT | GL_DEPTH_BUFFER_BIT);\n \n \u002F\u002F 使用着色器程序\n ourShader.use();\n\n int modelLoc = glGetUniformLocation(ourShader.ID, \"model\");\n glUniformMatrix4fv(modelLoc, 1, GL_FALSE, glm::value_ptr(model));\n\n int viewLoc = glGetUniformLocation(ourShader.ID, \"view\");\n glUniformMatrix4fv(viewLoc, 1, GL_FALSE, glm::value_ptr(view));\n\n int projectionLoc = glGetUniformLocation(ourShader.ID, \"projection\");\n glUniformMatrix4fv(projectionLoc, 1, GL_FALSE, glm::value_ptr(projection));\n \n ourShader.setInt(\"ourTexture\", 0);\n ourShader.setInt(\"ourTexture2\", 1);\n \n glBindVertexArray(VAO);\n \n \u002F\u002F 绘制立方体\n glDrawArrays(GL_TRIANGLES, 0, 36);\n \n \u002F\u002F 交换缓冲区和检查IO事件\n glfwSwapBuffers(window);\n }\n\n \u002F\u002F 清理资源\n glDeleteVertexArrays(1, &VAO);\n glDeleteBuffers(1, &VBO);\n glDeleteTextures(1, &texture);\n glDeleteTextures(1, &texture2);\n glfwTerminate();\n return 0;\n}\n\n#version 330 core\nout vec4 FragColor;\nin vec2 TexCoord;\nuniform sampler2D ourTexture;\nuniform sampler2D ourTexture2;\nvoid main()\n{\n FragColor = mix(texture(ourTexture, TexCoord), texture(ourTexture2, TexCoord), 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GL_DEPTH_BUFFER_BIT);\n",[93,4416,4417],{"class":175,"line":1535},[93,4418,1315],{},[93,4420,4421],{"class":175,"line":1541},[93,4422,1344],{},[93,4424,4425],{"class":175,"line":1546},[93,4426,1350],{},[93,4428,4429],{"class":175,"line":1551},[93,4430,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,4432,4433],{"class":175,"line":1557},[93,4434,3130],{},[93,4436,4437],{"class":175,"line":1562},[93,4438,3135],{},[93,4440,4441],{"class":175,"line":1567},[93,4442,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,4444,4445],{"class":175,"line":1572},[93,4446,3144],{},[93,4448,4449],{"class":175,"line":1578},[93,4450,3149],{},[93,4452,4453],{"class":175,"line":1584},[93,4454,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,4456,4457],{"class":175,"line":1590},[93,4458,3158],{},[93,4460,4461],{"class":175,"line":1596},[93,4462,3163],{},[93,4464,4465],{"class":175,"line":1601},[93,4466,1315],{},[93,4468,4469],{"class":175,"line":1606},[93,4470,1384],{},[93,4472,4473],{"class":175,"line":1611},[93,4474,1390],{},[93,4476,4477],{"class":175,"line":1616},[93,4478,1315],{},[93,4480,4481],{"class":175,"line":1622},[93,4482,1401],{},[93,4484,4485],{"class":175,"line":1628},[93,4486,1315],{},[93,4488,4489],{"class":175,"line":1634},[93,4490,4491],{}," \u002F\u002F 绘制立方体\n",[93,4493,4495],{"class":175,"line":4494},224,[93,4496,4497],{}," glDrawArrays(GL_TRIANGLES, 0, 36);\n",[93,4499,4501],{"class":175,"line":4500},225,[93,4502,1315],{},[93,4504,4506],{"class":175,"line":4505},226,[93,4507,1429],{},[93,4509,4511],{"class":175,"line":4510},227,[93,4512,1435],{},[93,4514,4516],{"class":175,"line":4515},228,[93,4517,518],{},[93,4519,4521],{"class":175,"line":4520},229,[93,4522,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,4524,4526],{"class":175,"line":4525},230,[93,4527,1451],{},[93,4529,4531],{"class":175,"line":4530},231,[93,4532,1457],{},[93,4534,4536],{"class":175,"line":4535},232,[93,4537,1463],{},[93,4539,4541],{"class":175,"line":4540},233,[93,4542,1475],{},[93,4544,4546],{"class":175,"line":4545},234,[93,4547,1481],{},[93,4549,4551],{"class":175,"line":4550},235,[93,4552,1487],{},[93,4554,4556],{"class":175,"line":4555},236,[93,4557,1493],{},[93,4559,4561],{"class":175,"line":4560},237,[93,4562,291],{},[93,4564,4566],{"class":175,"line":4565},238,[93,4567,239],{"emptyLinePlaceholder":238},[93,4569,4571],{"class":175,"line":4570},239,[93,4572,222],{},[93,4574,4576],{"class":175,"line":4575},240,[93,4577,1514],{},[93,4579,4581],{"class":175,"line":4580},241,[93,4582,1526],{},[93,4584,4586],{"class":175,"line":4585},242,[93,4587,1532],{},[93,4589,4591],{"class":175,"line":4590},243,[93,4592,1538],{},[93,4594,4596],{"class":175,"line":4595},244,[93,4597,267],{},[93,4599,4601],{"class":175,"line":4600},245,[93,4602,273],{},[93,4604,4606],{"class":175,"line":4605},246,[93,4607,4608],{}," FragColor = mix(texture(ourTexture, TexCoord), texture(ourTexture2, TexCoord), 0.5);\n",[93,4610,4612],{"class":175,"line":4611},247,[93,4613,291],{},[10,4615,4616,4617,4620,4621,106,4624,106],{},"​\tOpenGL",[48,4618,4619],{},"存储深度信息在一个叫做Z缓冲(Z-buffer)的缓冲中","，它",[48,4622,4623],{},"允许OpenGL决定何时覆盖一个像素而何时不覆盖",[48,4625,4626],{},"通过使用Z缓冲，我们可以配置OpenGL来进行深度测试",[1792,4628,4630],{"id":4629},"更多的立方体","更多的立方体！",[10,4632,4633],{},"​\t现在我们想在屏幕上显示10个立方体。每个立方体看起来都是一样的，区别在于它们在世界的位置及旋转角度不同。立方体的图形布局已经定义好了，所以当渲染更多物体的时候我们不需要改变我们的缓冲数组和属性数组，我们唯一需要做的只是改变每个对象的模型矩阵来将立方体变换到世界坐标系中。",[10,4635,4636,4637,4640,4641,4644],{},"​\t首先，让我们",[48,4638,4639],{},"为每个立方体定义一个位移向量来指定它在世界空间的位置","。我们将在一个",[171,4642,4643],{},"glm::vec3","数组中定义10个立方体位置：",[164,4646,4648],{"className":166,"code":4647,"language":168,"meta":169,"style":169},"glm::vec3 cubePositions[] = {\n glm::vec3( 0.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f), \n glm::vec3( 2.0f, 5.0f, -15.0f), \n glm::vec3(-1.5f, -2.2f, -2.5f), \n glm::vec3(-3.8f, -2.0f, -12.3f), \n glm::vec3( 2.4f, -0.4f, -3.5f), \n glm::vec3(-1.7f, 3.0f, -7.5f), \n glm::vec3( 1.3f, -2.0f, -2.5f), \n glm::vec3( 1.5f, 2.0f, -2.5f), \n glm::vec3( 1.5f, 0.2f, -1.5f), \n glm::vec3(-1.3f, 1.0f, -1.5f) \n};\n",[171,4649,4650,4655,4660,4665,4670,4675,4680,4685,4690,4695,4700,4705],{"__ignoreMap":169},[93,4651,4652],{"class":175,"line":176},[93,4653,4654],{},"glm::vec3 cubePositions[] = {\n",[93,4656,4657],{"class":175,"line":182},[93,4658,4659],{}," glm::vec3( 0.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f), \n",[93,4661,4662],{"class":175,"line":188},[93,4663,4664],{}," glm::vec3( 2.0f, 5.0f, -15.0f), \n",[93,4666,4667],{"class":175,"line":235},[93,4668,4669],{}," glm::vec3(-1.5f, -2.2f, -2.5f), \n",[93,4671,4672],{"class":175,"line":242},[93,4673,4674],{}," glm::vec3(-3.8f, -2.0f, -12.3f), \n",[93,4676,4677],{"class":175,"line":248},[93,4678,4679],{}," glm::vec3( 2.4f, -0.4f, -3.5f), \n",[93,4681,4682],{"class":175,"line":253},[93,4683,4684],{}," glm::vec3(-1.7f, 3.0f, -7.5f), \n",[93,4686,4687],{"class":175,"line":259},[93,4688,4689],{}," glm::vec3( 1.3f, -2.0f, -2.5f), \n",[93,4691,4692],{"class":175,"line":264},[93,4693,4694],{}," glm::vec3( 1.5f, 2.0f, -2.5f), \n",[93,4696,4697],{"class":175,"line":270},[93,4698,4699],{}," glm::vec3( 1.5f, 0.2f, -1.5f), \n",[93,4701,4702],{"class":175,"line":276},[93,4703,4704],{}," glm::vec3(-1.3f, 1.0f, -1.5f) \n",[93,4706,4707],{"class":175,"line":282},[93,4708,4154],{},[10,4710,4711],{},"​\t然后在循环绘制中，调用drawArray 几次。并且对每个cube进行旋转。",[164,4713,4715],{"className":166,"code":4714,"language":168,"meta":169,"style":169},"glBindVertexArray(VAO);\nfor(unsigned int i = 0; i \u003C 10; i++)\n{\n glm::mat4 model;\n model = glm::translate(model, cubePositions[i]);\n float angle = 20.0f * i; \n model = glm::rotate(model, glm::radians(angle), glm::vec3(1.0f, 0.3f, 0.5f));\n ourShader.setMat4(\"model\", model);\n\n glDrawArrays(GL_TRIANGLES, 0, 36);\n}\n",[171,4716,4717,4722,4727,4731,4736,4741,4746,4751,4756,4760,4765],{"__ignoreMap":169},[93,4718,4719],{"class":175,"line":176},[93,4720,4721],{},"glBindVertexArray(VAO);\n",[93,4723,4724],{"class":175,"line":182},[93,4725,4726],{},"for(unsigned int i = 0; i \u003C 10; i++)\n",[93,4728,4729],{"class":175,"line":188},[93,4730,273],{},[93,4732,4733],{"class":175,"line":235},[93,4734,4735],{}," glm::mat4 model;\n",[93,4737,4738],{"class":175,"line":242},[93,4739,4740],{}," model = glm::translate(model, cubePositions[i]);\n",[93,4742,4743],{"class":175,"line":248},[93,4744,4745],{}," float angle = 20.0f * i; \n",[93,4747,4748],{"class":175,"line":253},[93,4749,4750],{}," model = glm::rotate(model, glm::radians(angle), glm::vec3(1.0f, 0.3f, 0.5f));\n",[93,4752,4753],{"class":175,"line":259},[93,4754,4755],{}," ourShader.setMat4(\"model\", 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